40 Summing up

Ravi Korisettar

Module 1

This module has introduced basic concepts in prehistory, terminologies (which are elaborated in separate modules), typologies and the way genetics has impacted on our understanding of human evolution and migration out of Africa. The subsequent modules are developed against this background so that it becomes easy to comprehend prehistory in a scientific perspective.

The terms prehistory and protohistory are commonly found in Indian archaeologycial literature. The term prehistory refers to the study of preliterate societies, from the earliest times to the time of invention of writing. The appearance of the oldest written record marks the beginning of historical period. However in the Indian subcontinent there is a peculiar situation wherein the oldest script referred to as Indus script has so far not deciphered and until such time of its decipherment the period covered by the Indus civilization is referred to as Prohistoric period or protohistoric civilization. Further more the subcontinent also witnessed the rise of second urbanisation in the Ganga valley from the 6th century BC, wherein the earliest evidence for a written language appear. The Mauryan period marks the beginning of historical period in Indian history. This was the time of the rise of second urbanisation in India.

Module 2

It should be clear to us that humans have been living in Africa longer than any part of the world. The hominin origins is well documented from Africa and is placed in a firm chronological framework. The oldest stone tools are also recorded from Africa. We have also obtained a fairly good idea of the present state of information on human bio-cultural evolution in time and space. The new discoveries of hominin fossils have also added to our knowledge of the great diversity of hominin ancestors living in Africa during the Pliocene Period. Archaeological evidence from the Indian subcontinent is briefly presented here, details will follow in the individual modules on various phases of the Indian Palaeolithic. The next module will present information on the dispersal patterns across the old and new world and explain how the people came to be where they are.

Module 3

This chapter has introduced the current debates on the manner and circumstances leading to the peopling of the world first by anatomically ancients and later by anatomically moderns. Dispersal of human populations is a fact revealed by multiple sets of evidence. But the debate continues regarding the timing and routes of dispersal and the climate change impact on the movements. The nature and distribution of Archaeological evidence in distinctive geographical environments reveals the first major expansion took place in a network of continental areas designated Old World. The colonisation of new land masses by rapidly dispersing modern humans led to colonisation of Australia and the Americas i.e. the New World. Archaeological research helps reconstruct the history of human settlements in each of the distinctive regions of the world.

Module 4

Emphasis was on understanding the natural history of the subcontinent with focus on evolution of environments across the region where a network of ecosystems compring high altitude plateau, alluvial plains, rocky semi-arid regions, arid deserts, humid landlforms and coastal ecosystems were well developed during the Quaternary under the influence of long and short term changes in the monsoon circulation.

Although our knowledge of the Quaternary period is more relevant to understanding cultural evolution we are sure a background information of the geological and physiographic evolution of the landmass i.e. the Indian subcontinent equips us to obtain a general account of environment of the region, which definitely played a major role in the habitability of distinctive congenial environments that determined patterns of hominin expansion and gave rise to a clear pattern in the distribution of early settlements. This also helps in delineating the settlement patters during distinctive cultural periods.

Module 5

The importance of Quaternary studies can hardly be understated especially in Human Evolution. It was the time of great changes that finally gave way to the present living conditions. The Great Ice Age was a period of extreme climates. Vegetation, floral, faunal and hominoid species were entirely different. From pollen analysis, deep sea and ice core sheet analysis, stratigraphical, palaeomagnetic and oxygen isotopic analysis, fossil studies we get enormous information about the Quaternary period. This information not only provides us with a chronology, but also climatic and environmental conditions. These studies provide us with clues to answering why and how extinctions, migrations, and evolution happened. It makes us understand the adaptive mechanisms at work, which helped some species survive the extreme living conditions during that time.

It makes us understand how man-land relationships changed over time, how nature-dependent man came to master the same nature.

Module 6-7

Lithic technology

Module 8

Ceramic technology

Module 9

The study of human remains recovered from archaeological sites facilitates the interpretation of lifetime events such as migrations, diet, disease, physiological stress, injury and violent death, physical activity, and the demographic history of once-living populations. But, there is often a lack of good number of skeletal remains to represent a population, and it becomes difficult to generate any kind of information from the available scanty and fragmentary remains. The challenge of reconstructing life of extinct human ancestors from their skeletal remains is the domain of the anthropologists. By applying their knowledge of skeletal biology to palaeodemographic questions they contribute to archaeological investigations of extinct populations and help solve medical-legal problems in forensic investigations as well.

Through this chapter we could understand what is anthropology, its sub-disciplines in brief. It is also understood that India provides large number of human skeletal data which can be studied with bio-cultural perspectives. Different burial practices were followed by these ancient populations though out. The morphological and palaeopathological studies conducted on these skeletal collections have helped us in understanding the adaptation of these people with their respective environments. The tools like isotope, DNA and reanalysis of collection can tell us many aspects of life lived by people.

Module 10

In this chapter you will learn how humans in the past have interacted with the animal world over several millennia. Also, you will look at the changing roles of animals in man-animal relationships after humans mastered the techniques of domesticating plants and animals as an assured supply of food and other essential resources, which are basically secondary products. In addition you will be introduced the earliest evidence of domestic animals in the Indian subcontinent.

Module 11

The Lower Palaeolithic evidence from the Indian subcontinent has been studied by a multitude of scholars during the last hundred and fifty years and more. Approach to the study has also been shifting its emphasis from time to time. Recent dating efforts have provided clear evidence of very early colonization of the Lower Palaeolithic hominins from Africa. The first major expansion of hominins out of Africa is referred to as Out of Africa I, associated with the expansion of Homo erectus out of Africa. Though the survey and excavations have not as yet produced evidence of hominin fossils, the comparative typo-technological studies of Acheulian industries from India and Africa have been carried out. The emergence of Acheulian technology is ascribed to Homo erectus. Hence the occurrence of Acheulian assemblages elsewhere in the old world is attributed to expanding Homo erectus out of Africa. The absolute date for the Acheulian at Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu places this expansion in the Lower Pleistocene (around 1.5 million years ago). The distribution pattern of Lower Palaeolithic sites in peninsular India indicates the presence of core areas of habitation. These are identified on the basis of dense distribution of sites within the well defined geological basins, such as the Purana and Gondwana basins. This dense occurrence is attributed to the co-occurrence of perennial raw material resources, high plant and animal biomass, and active springs. In addition the relatively sparse distribution of such sites is also documented from peripheral zones. And some areas are devoid of any evidence of Lower Palaeolithic settlements, for e.g. the Ganga valley alluvial basin, the region south of the Kaveri river in south India and northeast highlands. Detailed study of technology, man-land relationships at select sites are under way. The Lower Paleolithic assemblages are comparable to those in Africa and the Levant. In the subcontinent they have a widespread distribution from north Pakistan to southeast coast of India, and in Nepal. As mentioned above the main type of artefacts are handaxes, cleavers, choppers, scrapers, discoids, polyhedrons, etc. They were made from locally occurring raw materials such as quartzite, limestone, chert, etc.

Module 12

Middle Palaeolithic

Module 13

Upper Palaeolithic To sum up, the Upper Palaeolithic in India has a distinct identity. It succeeds the Middle Palaeolithic and precedes the Mesolithic with a time bracket of c. 40,000 years B.P. to 10,000 years B.P. in the Late Pleistocene. The industry is based on blade and bone tool technology. Flake-blade, blade tool and blade and burin industries are reported from different parts of India from both surface scatters and stratified sites from the desert areas as well as several river valleys. Bone tools and faunal remains are reported from Kurnool cave areas and the Godavarikhani open air site.

There is some evidence of art during this period. There were shifts in climate and environment in different parts of India during this period. It is heartening to note that some attempts are made to gain insights into the life-ways of Upper Palaeolithic apart from time-space systematics, by undertaking intensive study of small areas to interpret intra and inter-site variability and relationships, and palaeo-demography based on artefactual, and eco-factual data and ethno-archaeological information from contemporary simple societies.

Module 14

There is evidence that microlithic proportion of tools started appearing in the last phase of the Upper Palaeolithic. Epi Palaeolithic saw the occurrence of smaller tools than Upper Palaeolithic blades but bigger than true microlithic proportions of Mesolithic. Mesolithic microliths probably grew out of this phase and advanced into the true microlith and with geometric types of tools, towards a later phase. The Mesolithic period witnessed widespread human occupation to new regions, previously unoccupied or non-occupied. The sites are found in all the regions of India, irrespective of the geological formations. The use of crypto-crystalline silica enabled the Mesolithic communities to adapt to new conditions and also helped produce microlithic tools. There are ample evidence from sites like Srai Naha Rai, Damdama etc., that Mesolithic people travelled great distances to procure good raw materials in the absence of the same locally. This indicated interactions between the communities living in the northern alluvial plain with the hill people of the northern fringes of the Vindhyas and later on with the early agriculturists.

Microliths were used as composite tools, in harvesting wild grasses yielding grains, arrow points, fishing, etc. Unfortunately, in South India there are no excavated sites. Hundreds of rock shelter sites with paintings of the period are known from Kurnool, Cuddappa, Kaladgi and Bhima basins.

The burial evidences from various sites some with grave goods suggest some belief and rituals that existed. Incipient domestication of plants and animals are also evident from cultural remains from some sites and we can conclude that it is the part sedentary Mesolithic communities that laid the foundations of the Neolithic agricultural way of life.

Module 15

Based on above considerations five distinctive environmental zones with records of early agricultural development have been identified by Peter Bellwood. They are as follows.

1. The Indus valley and Baluchistan constitute a vast tract of alluvial plains in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. The region presents a continuous record of early agricultural development beginning from the 7th millennium BC, as evidence from Mehrgarh on Bolan in the Kachi Plain and Late Harappan sites in the greater Indus valley. The early phase was characterised by the introduction of Southwest Asian crops, and by the end of Harappan Civilization food crops from East Asia/eastern India (rice), millet species from northern Africa were introduced.

2. The Ganga valley is also well water alluvial plain, also known as the Ganga Plain, receives adequate rain supporting a perennial network of rivers and fertile flood plain soils. The region presents a mixed agricultural economy of Southwest Asian winer crops and summer rice, probably local in origin, but the claim as yet is disputed. As of now the beginnings of Neolithic is dated to around 3000 BC and the possibility of rice cultivation prior to 3000 BC is a distinct possibility.

3. Inland peninsular India extends over a triangular rocky landscape, the Deccan plateau, a triangular area between the Aravalli-Vindhyas in the north and the Tamil Nadu plains in the south. The region as a whole receives monsoon rains with unequal distribution as one progreses from the southwest to central India, and westwards towards Rajasthan. Though the drainage network is described as seasonal, apparently during Mid- Holocene and earlier edequate ground water movement facilitated adequate water resources in the inland regions, as evidenced by the location of hilltop Neolithic settlements away from rivers in southern Deccan region. In recent years archaeobotanical research has documented evidence for adoption of local small millets for agriculture prior to the introduction of Southwest Asian and African millets 3500 and 2000 BC. In the southern Deccan Neolithic cattle pastoralism was dominant.

4. The humid coastal regions of peninsular India and northeastern humid uplands do have records of early agricultural settlements.

5. The Himalayan region has records of early agricultural settlements in the Kashmir valley dating from 2500 BC. The crop package included Southwest Asian and East Asian affinities.

In the next couple of modules provide details of regional development of Neolithic cultures in the Indian subcontinent.

Module 16

Neolithic culture of the northern half of the subcontinent

Module 17

Neolithic culture of Southern India

Module 18

In this chapter we have seen the cultural changes have occurred during the course of the Indus Civilization from the Regionalization Era to Integration Era, delineated through a study of ceramic types that distinguish each of these phases. The chapter also traces the way the transformation from one stage to another occurred.

Module 19

In this chapter, we have seen the characteristic features of Indus society and religion. Though, the truth is that until the script is deciphered or more enlightening archaeological materials found, we have to live with our limited knowledge.

Module 20

The above account clearly helps us to understand the sophistication and diversification of the Harappan craftsmanship in devising technologies used for creating various implements and objects. This technology was also due to the preceding phases of innovatio ns starting right from Neolithic period onwards, which gradually progressed during Chalcolithic period and peaked in the Harappan civilization. The Harappan artisanship is also a milestone for advancement of later period technologies. Several aspects of scientific studies have helped in understanding the manufacturing of beads, figurines, metal implements and tools. It has also helped in determining the provenance of raw materials used for various craft activities. The provenance studies help in understanding the cultural contacts between urban and rural societies and the complex socio-cultural phenomena.

Module 21

The above presentation of data emanating from over 90 years of research has clearly indicated the dynamism and innovation shown by the Harappans in devising methodologies of local and international trade mechanisms. The incipient needs and attraction towards exotic materials and items slowly gave way to a sophisticated and state controlled trade mechanism, which was necessary to export them. The clear variation in raw materials from different regions also helped in the economic competence and ultimately prosperity to not only the regions, but also the civilization as a whole, which helped in its sustenance for nearly 700 years. The establishment of trade contacts with Mesopotamia from as early as 2500 BCE is another indicator of enterprising nature of Harappans, and it is also clear that cultural contact even prior to this period is possible. The above survey of both internal and external trade of the Harappans has helped us in understanding the phenomena in a better manner.

Module 22

The above discussion clearly indicates a complex phenomenon, which led to the transformation of the Indus Civilization from urban to deurbanised stage. The major reasons proposed by scholars were Aryan invasion, climate change and environmental factors, drying up of the Sarasvati, tectonic movements altering the river courses, inland dam/reservoir, collapse in both internal and external trade with Mesopotamia, and others. While the Aryan invasion theory is completely discarded now, the other reasons may hold good either individually or collectively. It is rather difficult to pin point a single cause of this transformation and only be understood in terms of the large-scale climatic, geomorphological and archaeological data.

Module 23

Theories of Aryan migration

Modules 24 and 25 –

Focus on the issues on the authors of the Harappan civilization and present a scientific account of the issues such as place of the Aryans in Indian proto history and explore the literary and archaeological sources to provide fresh insights on the Saraswati in relation to Indus and Vedic times

Modules 26 and 27

Provide a comprehensive account of post-Harappan period Chalcolithic cultures in the northwestern and western India

These modules provide an up-to-date account of Chalcolithic economies that predate the rise of urbanisation during the succeeding Iron age in India

Iron Age marks the being large scale expansion of agricultural settlements In the Ganga Valley and successful exploitation of iron technology Iron age is Also characterised by the emergence of typical megalithic culture in southern India

Module 29-30

Focus on various aspects of this time period with explicit reference to the rise of second urbanisation in the Indian subcontinent

Module 31

Transition to early history is also explained

Module 32 – 35

A separate module on rock art studies in India, the nature and variety, its chronology and Changing methods of study dealt with in module 35

Modules 36-38

Provide a refreshing account of Science and technology, and water management strategies in ancient India