24 Protohistory of India and Pakistan VI- Post Harappan Cultures

V.N. Prabhakar

 Introduction

In the previous module the transformation of Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2600 – 1900 BCE) into Late Harappan or the post-urban phase and the various reasons for this change were discussed. An understanding of the various phases of the Indus Valley Civilization, viz., ‘early’, ‘mature’ and ‘late/post-urban’ were also discussed. For convenience, the chronological framework of Mark Kenoyer is repeated here:

It has been understood that several reasons contributed to the transformation of Harappan phase to late Harappan phase, some of which are, drying up of river Sarasvati, capturing of River Sutlej by Indus system and excessive water flow caused shifting of river channels due to which many settlements could have buried under silt, collapse in economic infrastructure due to various reasons leading to snapping in trade contacts and long distance trade, climatic change, natural damming on River Indus and the now disproved Aryan invasion theory. It has also been observed that a gradual shift in the settlements towards the east and continuing occupation in the southern regions indicating a continuity but in a deurbanised form. This is indicated by the increase in number of settlements but the average occupied area remained the same during the late Harappan phase. Further, towards the end of third millennium and beginning of second millennium BCE, the introduction of millets like jowar, bajra and ragi which could be harvested during summer season, facilitation the migration of population from the Indus-Sarasvati heartland to the Gangetic river system, while the settlements in Gujarat region was fully adapted for such a scenario.

The evidence for this transformation has been found from several sites in all the major regions of Indus Valley Civilization, i.e. Panjab-Rajasthan-Haryana, Sindh and Gujarat. The excavation at the sites of Mehergarh, Nausharo and Pirak enabled in the understanding the various transformations happening in the Indus Valley, right from the Neolithic Period onwards. The settlements at Nausharo and Pirak aptly reflects the transformation from ‘mature’ to ‘late’ Harappan phase of the civilization. Similarly, Dholavira in Gujarat and Harappa in Panjab provide excellent evidence of this transformation and the nature of habitation during the late Harappan phase. Several regional sites like Jhukar in Sindh, Bara in Panjab and Rangpur in Gujarat also clearly exhibit regional phenomenon of late Harappan phase and now we have a better understanding of these cultures in the overall setting in the valleys of Indus and its tributaries.

Fig. 1: Map showing the late Harappan cultures

The emergence of these new regional cultural traits can be distinguished by distinct and new ceramic styles, rectangular seals with only script and absence of motifs, and new burial customs. Mark Kenoyer describes three major regional cultural styles of ‘localization era’ or ‘late Harappan/post-urban Harappan as follows:

“…..the Panjab phase refers to the northern regional culture that includes the large site of Harappa and sites further to the east in northern India. In the southern Indus valley the Jhukar phase is named after a site near Mohenjo-daro and incorporates all sites in Sindh, as well as parts of Baluchistan (Balochistan). The Rangpur phase refers to the entire region of Kutch (Kachchh), Saurashtra and mainland Gujarat.”

The Bara ceramic tradition from the type site Bara in Punjab is another manifestation which appears during last phase of Harappan culture in Punjab and proliferates during late Harappan phase in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. Further, there are distinctive continuities in ceramic styles between the Harappan-Late Harappan ones on the one hand and Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) on the other. The shift of settlements from the Indus-Sarasvati core to the eastern regions and the already existing late phase of Harappan Culture in the Ganga-Yamuna doab are indications for this continuity. The discovery of an antennae sword from a Late Harappan burial at Sanauli is another indication of the cultural contacts and connections between them. The OCP culture is also be discussed in this module in order to understand its place in the overall cultural milieu towards the end of Indus Valley Civilization and the probable continuity and connections.

With this introduction, we now proceed to understand each cultural phase of Late Harappan to understand its nature, spread, ceramic styles and other representations.

2. Punjab Phase (Cemetery H and Bara)

The occupational deposits of this period are found from the mounds AB and E. The charcteriitc features include ceramics of Cemetery H type, drains, and burnt bricks the sizes of which are smaller than the preceding period. Rafique Mughal identifies Cemetery H style pottery from Chak Purbane Syal and from nearly fifty sites in the Cholistan area. It has been surmised that the Period 5 at Harappa represents only a change in “focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment….”.

The Cemetery H mound is located to the south of Mounds E and D.

Fig. 7, 8 and 9: Pot-burials containing young babies, Cemetery H, Harappa

The area was systematically probed during the 1928-29, 1929-30 and 1930-31 field seasons. The burials at Cemetery H are found in two strata, viz., Stratum I and II, the latter being the earliest containing earth burials while the former consist of pot burials. The earth burials consist of burial furniture in the form of water-pots, bowls, offerings dishes or plates, saucers, flat covers, flasks, round vases, etc. It is also pointed out that the Cemetery H area was used as dumping ground before its use as a cemetery based on the large occurrence of Indus type pottery of all kinds and fabric; the pointed based goblets are found in excess of other types. This area also contained a good collection of minor artefacts, which might have been deposited as discarded material along with the pottery remains.

2.1 Pot Burials from Stratum I

Up to 1928-29 11 pot-burials were excavated and later 124 more burials were brought to light. Among the pot-burials unearthed at Harappa, “……35 contained bones of adults – young or old, 21 of children, 6 whose age is doubtful, and 11 of babies or infants, while 51 were without bones and filled only with percolated earth.” The evidence from the burials suggest that only one pot was meant for interring the bones, even though exceptions are always found, in which a single pot contained three skulls. Some of the pot-burials also exhibited mixing of bones of one or more individuals.

Normally the skull is placed at the bottom centre of the jar, and longer bones surrounding it placed either slanting or in horizontal position, bisecting each other in several cases and the remaining spaces filled with other smaller bones wherever possible.The average height of placement of bone remains inside the pot is from 12.7 – 25.4 cm above the bottom, and in one case, the height noticed is 44.45 cm. Instances of charred and uncharred bones mixed with pieces of charcoal, blackened potsherds along with other artefacts in a jar (H 245 a) is also found which is compared with some post-cremation urns from the mounds of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. The child burials were found with “…one ellipsoid, one oval and nine round jars…” and usually the younger babies are placed in embryonic position and without exposing them like the adult ones. Further, evidence of the babies tied up first in embryonic position and then wrapped in a cloth is also put forth as observed from H 83 and H 165 a.

Fig. 11, 12 and 13: Pot-burials containing young babies, Cemetery H, Harappa

The most common shapes of the pots from the burials are round, ellipsoid and carinated with heights ranging from 25 – 60 cm. The round burial pots are both painted and plain, the painted ones have a flanged neck and sometimes with a ring base as in the case of ellipsoid vessels. The plain vessels are also decorated below the shoulder portion in the form of roughening by fingertip/finger-groove patterns. The ellipsoid burial jars are both plain, decorated with simple painted bands and some of them elaborately painted while the pots with carination are elaborately painted.

The burial pots were covered and closed with various utensils like inverted bowls, vases, handled lids, potsherds and bricks, and in some rare cases further covered by a sherd. The burial pots usually contain fragmentary human remains placed only at the lower part while the upper part remained empty and filled with post-burial earth. According to M.S.Vats these burials were devoid of certain pottery types like goblets with pointed bases, cylindrical vases, figurines, cakes, etc., which is generally associated with post-cremation urns from the mounds. Vats further notes that the human remains interred in the burial pots are actually post-exposure remains from the dead bodies to birds and beasts based on the evidence of presence of a group of bones including two skulls, mandible and fragmentary bones in an enclosure from Mound AB.

These burial pots are different from those found from the mounds in terms of shape and painted decorative motifs. Vats also observes that only the larger bones like skull and fragments, leg and arm bones, parts of vertebrae, pelvis, shoulder bone and other longer bones were found in the pot-burials which also indicates that the smaller bones were scavenged and carried away by birds or beasts and hence with the leftover bones, the pot-burials were prepared. Some of the burial pots in terms of interment of grave furniture are discussed here in order to understand the customs and traditions.

The “Mixed Group No. H 231” consist of a main group of five jars and three smaller sub-groups consisting of pottery types like bowl, saucers, flask or vases. Among these three smaller sub-groups, one fragmentary flat cover contained the remains of “forepart of markhor goat” and the pottery was painted underneath with fish motifs. The Group No. H 206 consists of a group of eleven vessels, four ellipsoid in shape covered with inverted bowls, four roundish with upper part missing, an oval vase and goblets. The interesting feature of this group is the painted decoration of one of the ellipsoid jars (named as a) at the shoulder portion depicting three flying peacocks alternating with stars.

The jar b from H 206 has again painted motifs in two bands, the lower one containing rows of leaves alternated with pair of stars, while the upper one is identified as a mythological scene and consists of two groups of figures, “….a bull with long incurving horns on either side of a beaked human figure who has secured them by the neck with ropes held in hands and under the feet, and who also has a bow and arrow in his left hand.”

The left portion of the representation shows a hound attacking the rear animal and taking the tail in its mouth, which is followed again by the representation of two horned peacocks in flight. The scene again is repeated with a slight modification and the sequence is from left to right. In between the above two scenic representations, a large sized goat is shown with enormous sized horns ornamented with eight trident-like devices. The opposite side of the jar has a similar repetition of scenes with the exception that the bulls are decorated with trident shaped crest between the horns.

M.S. Vats interprets the scenic representation as a symbolic one associated with the death, wherein the left scene of hounds may be that of Yama while the right scene of bulls with trident crest represent ‘Abode of Bliss’ and the intermediary goat may be a ‘pathfinder’ which is deified here. The support for this interpretation is drawn from the ancient literature like Rigveda, Asvalayana Ghrihya Sutra, Aitareya Brahmana, Katyayana Srauta Sutra, and from later literature like Ramayana, Mahabharata and Harivamsa. The depiction of peacock on burial pots is also noticed from Jar H 150, Jar H 148 wherein a set of five conventionalised peacocks is depicted in the former while five flying peacocks alternating with rows of birds are depicted in the latter.

The other depictions from burial pots include that of long-horned and humped quadrupeds identified as bulls, birds and stars (Jar H 154), rows of flying kites alternating with leafy patterns (Jar H 148) (Vats 1940: 211), peacocks along with other animals, conventionalised trees, bulls with bird like heads carrying spirit of the dead (Group 3934), a flying peacock carrying spirit of dead (in therianthropic form) (Jar H 206 a), bands of paintings divided into horizontal bands in two tiers and “…subdivided into a number of triangular panels decorated with rows of flying birds or fishes” (Jar H 620), two tiers, upper one consisting of rows of birds (resembling arrow-heads) and double lozenges flanked by leaves; lower one with alternating groups of varieties of birds (Jar H 623), pair of peacock heads alternated with rayed orbs or stars, heads of peacocks crowned with pairs of sacred horns with twin leaves (Jar H 245), two tiered decoration with markhor goat, trees and bird in upper while stars-in-crescent and birds in lower (Jar H 246).

The designs executed on the burial pots other than the animals and birds consisting of stars, rayed orbs, wavy lines, vegetation, flying birds, etc., are interpreted with inner meanings by Vats. Vats associated stars and rayed orbs representing heaven and sun; wavy lines and fishes to water; flying birds to carry the soul of dead person”. The lids of the burial pots are also decorated in a variety of motifs like bands, rough triangles, wavy lines, pipal leaf, orbed rays, etc.

The personal belongings like clay ball; flat & feather-like ornament of ivory with linear decoration are also found as in the case of Group 3934. In another burial (Jar H 231 b), the personal belongings consist of two cog-wheel shaped nose discs of steatite was found and from burial Jar H 149 artefacts like terracotta cakes, pointed base goblet of Indus type, a dish, terracotta ball, pieces of a bangle and pestle also found. The orientation of the pot-burial is mentioned only in the case of H 246 wherein within a group consisting of 9 jars, 4 lay roughly in a north – south direction.

2.2 Earth Burials from Stratum II

The Stratum II, the lower levels at Cemetery H revealed evidence totally different from the pot-burials of Stratum I. This stratum consists of human burials, extended in nature, both complete and fractional, and interred into graves dug into the ground. These burials also contain burial furniture, which is different in nature and typology from that of pot-burials. The evidence gathered from the earth burials indicates that the orientation in majority of the cases is from northeast – southwest, while in three instances it is east – west and in one case, west to east.

In most of the burials, the dead are placed in an extended supine position, while in five instances the legs are flexed inwards. The burials also generally contain grave furniture in the form of pottery, and in the case of five extended ones and in four incomplete burials, no burial pottery was found. The burial pottery is finished with a red polish over the surface and decorated with black colour paintings. The nature of burial pottery associated with the burials is water-pot, a small round ghara(pot), round pot, squat vase, bowl, flask, food plates or dishes, flat covers. The order of frequency among the pottery from maximum to fewer in order is water pot, bowl with or without a flask inside, food plates or dishes with or without a stand.

The pottery, which occurs in fewer frequencies, is the flasks, saucers and flat covers. The lesser frequency pottery also occurs separately in the burials and if not associated with other major pottery types, they are found usually in large numbers. The pots that are generally larger than the water pots are termed as kalasasby Vats and these types of vessels are found with gypsum crystals at the bottom, which is interpreted as due to the presence of water inside. The kalasa is also covered with a small flask, which is said to have been with a utility purpose of drinking water for the deceased. The burials, which are rich in terms of pottery, are H 502, H 502, H 697, H 698 and their general arrangement consist of placing near the head, the body, and foot, with the most common preference is the first one.

The category of pottery described as offering dishes “…..are squat, strong and well made, with raised horizontal mouldings on the base”.The bowls are plain, while the saucers are deep and decorated with chevrons and with holes at the rim. The saucers are painted on the underside with various motifs like “….deer, peacocks, trees, leaves, stars, birds, fishes, hands, tassels, etc.”

Vats also notes that the profusion in the decoration is noted in the upper levels of the stratum. The flasks from the burials have both well-defined base as well as roundish base without no projection and decorated with “….simple designs consisting of lines and chevrons, stars in circles or crescents, and with a dark slip over the neck; in others only the neck is painted”. A brief of each of the earth burial is given under for understanding the placement of skeleton, burial pottery, posture etc.:

The recent excavations at Harappa carried out by Harappa Archaeological Research Project (HARP) lead to new probing into the Period V corresponding to Cemetery H culture at this site. Kenoyer (1998) notices a gradual transformation from Harappan to Punjab Phase (Cemetery H culture). From the burials of Cemetery H culture, according to Kenoyer “……painted jars with high flaring rims are a new style that can be associated with highland cultures to the west, but the large jars with ledge rims and the heavy dish-on-stands have strong links with earlier Harappan styles…..a new variation of the dish-on-stand has ridges on the base and hole at the center…..adults were cremated, but children were placed inside large urns, then covered with a second pot.     These large burial urns are heavily decorated with painted motifs….”   further estimates that the ceramic tradition of Cemetery H is found “….throughout northern Pakistan, even as far north as Swat, where they mix with distinctive local traditions….numerous sites in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab provide evidence for the gradual expansion of settlements into this heavily forested region.”

In the east, the Cemetery H tradition also coincided with the Bara ceramic tradition, first found and identified at a site of the same name located on the left bank of a seasonal river known as Bukdi nala. The excavations at Chandigarh and Rupnagar brought to light the position of Bara ceramics in a stratigraphical position. The Bara ceramics appear towards the end of Harappan phase at both these sites, intermixed with Harappan ceramics and later dominating the entire ceramic complex. The Bara ceramics as described by Y.D. Sharma are characterised by “……made of well levigated, fine to medium-grained clay, it is all wheel turned, with a self-slip or applied slip, a dull brown in colour. Designs are painted in dull chocolate or black, and are incised with wooden points or brushes. Paring is present, but the more characteristic is a technique of drawing designs with a blunt point on a smooth surface. These designs acquire a sheen or burnished appearance when fired.” Bara ware is also characterized by incisions on the shoulder and rustications on the base in a ‘wet ware technique’ with “…..honey-combed ridges, brushed spirals or finger patchwork.”

The gradual shift of Harappan settlements during the localization era saw the occupation and settlement at several new sites in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This also coincides with the interaction and gradual contacts with the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) culture and its associated Copper Hoards. An excellent evidence in this regard is from the site of Sanauli, district Baghpat wherein a large Late Harappan cemetery was exposed with 116 contexts. The Burial 14 from Sanauli is a symbolic burial without any skeletal remains and with18 pottery vessels – 9 jars, 4 bowls, 2 dishes-on-stand, and 3 big jars – placed to the northwest of the burial and an antenna sword along with a copper sheath. The antenna sword is a typical Copper Hoard repertoire indicating a clear interaction between the two cultures. Another antenna sword is also reported from the same site, discovered by the villagers and hence from a secondarycontext. However, the discovery of two antennae swords substantiates the contacts between the late Harappans and Copper Hoard / OCP culture. 

context. However, the discovery of two antennae swords substantiates the contacts between the late Harappans and Copper Hoard / OCP culture.

The emergence of faience technology in a substantial manner is another hallmark of the Late Harappan phase. This is due to the gradual decline in procurement of semi-previous raw materials like agate-carnelian, lapis lazuli, turquoise due to the breakdown in trade routes towards the end of Harappan phase. Mark Kenoyer also observes that the technology of faience becomes more refined during Cemetery H culture. The remarkable number of faience beads found from the Sanauli burials, which exhibit, simple to complex technologies, also supports this. The faience beads at Sanauli consists of beads cut from long tubes, wound beads consisting of two to multiple colours, imitation of agate-carnelian eye beads. The emergence of wound beads consisting of multiple colours is a clear indication of complex technology, which in early Historical times transferred to produce the wound glass beads.

This phase also saw emergence of new technologies for drilling the agate-carnelian and other stone beads as witnessed from a hoard of beads from Harappa. The discovery of a ‘bead pot’ at Harappa in 1996, datable to 1730 BCE had beads drilled using copper tubular drill with abrasive, which was not a dominant technology during the preceding Harappan phase as ernestite was the chief drilling material. Again, the breakdown in trade routes cut off the ernestite supply and the late Harappans expanded and improvised the tubular drilling technology in a major way.

Later, Mughal carried out excavation at Jhukar during 1973 and 1974 to establish a clear stratigraphical position. Mughal identifies three phases in Jhukar phase as early, middle and late based on the ceramics, structures and floor levels. Kenoyer observes that “….Jhukar and subsequent Pirak phases represent ……..gradual change during which a new group of elites emerge with different ceramic styles once again employing circular seals with geometric designs.”The emergence of Jhukar phase is identified towards the end of Harappan phase and datable to c. 2000-1800 BCE followed by Pirak phase datable from c. 1800-800 BCE.

The Jhukar phase continues after the end of Harappan phase at sites like Mohenjo Daro, Chanhudaro, Jhukar and Amri and also has links to the Pirak phase found mostly in Kachi plain. Kenoyer (1998) argues a dominant localized culture of Jhukar phase due to the continuing occupation of major sites in southern Indus plain. Rafiq Mughal observes that while the Harappan ceramic types continue in all the phases, new types later identified as Jhukar ceramics appear in middle and late levels. The Jhukar style ceramics are also reported from Dholavira (Stage VI), Lothal (A) and Rangpur (IIA).

Fig. 42: Seals and amulets, Jhukar culture, Chanhudaro

While Kenoyer notices continuity in major technological features in pottery and other objects, he also observes major differences in the pottery designs, absence of writing and Harappan style animals on seals and the increased use of circular seals with geometric designs. The cert cubical weights were discontinued as well as stylized female figurines, the script only found on pottery.

The evidence from Pirak on the Kachi plains is seen as an indication of “…strong cultural connections to other sites on the Kachi plain and settlements in the highlands to the west”. The emergence of compartmented square-circular seals in terracotta and bronze with geometrical designs are completely new in form and different from the preceding Harappan phase in this region. The circular seals are similar to Jhukar style ones which have also have a continuity from the Period V at Mehrgarh (c. 3300-2800 BCE).

Rangpur Phase (entire region of Kutch (Kachchh), Saurashtra and mainland Gujarat)

The evidence for a gradual transformation from Harappan to Late Harappan phase is clearly visible from the excavation of sites like Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotada and Rangpur. This phase also witnessed a remarkable increase in the number of settlements when compared to the Mature Harappan phase. The Stage VI at Dholavira, Period IB at Surkotada, Lothal B and Rangpur IIA & IIC clearly exhibit a decrease in typical Harappan ceramics and emergence of new ceramic types like white painted Black-and-Red ware having parallels with Ahar ceramics in association with coarse red ware. The sites of Lothal and Rangpur indicate the emergence of lustrous red ware during this phase. In addition to this, certain ceramic styles such as stud-handled bowl are distinct to Saurashtra region also appears as early as Lothal A. This ceramics proliferates during later levels as indicated at Lothal B and Rangpur IIA and IIB. This phase is also characterised by rubble stone structures as evidenced from Dholavira, Surkotada, Bagasra, and others in the Kachchh region.

Fig. 43 (a) Bead workshop area, Bailey; (b) Bead polisher and working floor in situ, Bailey; (c) Bead workshop, Castle

The best evidence for the transformation comes from the Stages VI and VII from Dholavira during which the occupation area of this settlement is reduced to almost one-fifth of its original size, with only portions of castle, bailey and southern portions of middle town. The urban fabric of the settlement was transformed along with changes in seal types, ceramic styles, etc. The seals are now devoid of any animal motifs and only script is noticed on rectangular shaped ones. The bead industry, which was a dominant one at Dholavira during the preceding Harappan phase, continues in Stage VI also. The continuing use of ernestite drills during this stage in large numbers clearly indicates the regional domination in usage of such drills. Out of 1470 ernestite drills from Dholavira, 243 are from Stage VI, which clearly shows the continuing domination of bead industry using ernestite here.

The structural activities continue at Dholavira during Stage VI with reuse of stones and architectural members from Harappan phase. Remarkably, two bead-working areas, one each from near west gate of castle and west of north gate of bailey are worth mentioning. The bead working area from Bailey still has the bead polishers surrounded by stones arranged in a circular fashion. The bead working area from castle shows evidence of reuse of stone architectural members, most probably from the gateways and used as anvil.

Fig. 45: Structure of Stage VII, Dholavira

The Stage VII at Dholavira is a further devolved culture characterised by circular structures, the continuity of which can be noticed from the present vernacular architecture in the entire Kachchh.

5. Conclusion

From the foregoing account, it can be seen that a gradual transformation of Harappan phase characterised by urban features into a rural and post-urban late Harappan phase was witnessed in different parts of the Indus Civilization starting from around 1900 BCE. This transformation into regional cultures is witnessed in three distinct regions, modern Panjab-Haryana-western U.P. marked by Cemetery H-Bara ceramic styles; southern Indus plains by Jhukar-Pirak ceramic styles and Kachchh, Saurashtra and mainland Gujarat by Rangpur-Lothal ceramic styles. While the sites in southern Indus plains and Gujarat continued with craft activities due to their access to raw material sources, the northern plains saw a major transformation and emergence of a refined faience technology, a precursor of glass. The drying up of River Sarasvati, capture of River Sutlej by Indus system saw a gradual shift of settlements towards the east, and further into the Ganga-Yamuna doab, and evidence for interactions with Bara culture is noticed here. Further, interaction with OCP / Copper Hoard culture is also noticed in this region. Thus, the late Harappan phase saw continuation of several traits from preceding Harappan phase, but also saw several new emerging new traits due to the changing scenario.

Web links

• http://www.harappa.com/
• http://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/harappa-mohenjodaro
• http://www.harappa.com/har/indus-saraswati.html
• http://www.asi.nic.in/asi_exca_2007_dholavira.asp
• http://www.asi.nic.in/asi_exca_2007_sanauli.asp
• http://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization

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