23 Protohistory of India and Pakistan IV: Trade and Urbanism during the Indus Civilization

V.N. Prabhakar

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Introduction

 

The excavations at prominent sites in Pakistan like Kot Diji, Mehrgarh, Nausharo, Sibri and recently at Harappan have helped in the understanding and long term development of cultures on the Indus River right from the Neolithic times onwards. In particular, the excavation at Kot Diji by Rafique Mughal helped in understanding of the continuity from ‘early’ to ‘mature’ phase of the Indus Civilization, thereby departing from the concept of a ‘pre’ Harappan culture existing before the ‘mature’ Harappan culture. Further, the extensive excavations at Mehrgarh, Nausharo, Pirak and Sibri by the French Archaeological Mission in Pakistan under the directorship of Jean Francois Jarrige contributed enormously in understanding a long cultural history spanning nearly 9000 years, starting from aceramic Neolithic and continuing into the ceramic Neolithic, Chalcolithic, advanced Chalcolithic, Harappan, and Iron Age cultures.

 

The field investigations for nearly a century since the discovery of Indus Valley Civilization have brought to light well over 1500 settlements of varying sizes covering an overall area of nearly 700,000 sq. km., larger than twice the size of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The recent excavations at sites like Harappa, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, and others have also helped in understanding the rise and transformation of Harappan culture from regional Early Harappan to Mature and Late Harappan phases.

In particular, a host of radiocarbon dates from Harappa has helped in dating several phases of Harappa culture in a better manner the following chronology is obtained:

Our understanding of the Indus Civilization has also undergone a transformation since the days of Marshall, Mackay, Wheeler, Gordon Childe and Piggot, which was described as: ‘austere, peaceful, lacking mental and spiritual equipment of the builders, sense of regimentation, astonishing sameness of civilization, destroyed by invading Aryans’. The present sense of understanding of this civilization is different from the above scholars and various phases of ‘regionalization, interaction, integration, regionalization and transformation’ have been noticed among different regions. There are considerable evidences from different parts of the Indus Civilization reflecting a gradual transformation of its ‘urban’ phase to a ‘non-urban’ phase which is identified with the Late Harappan.

 

Objective:

 

In this module , the transformation of ‘Harappan’ phase to ‘Late Harappan’ phase will be discussed along with the various reasons attributed for such a transformation.

 

2. Transformation from Mature Harappan to Late Harappan

 

The early understanding of the Indus Civilization was a sudden abandonment and after having prospered for several hundred years. The evidence from the urban centres like Mohenjo Daro was  cited  as  an  example  for  this  theory. G.L. Possehl aptly  summarizes  the  earlier understanding of this civilization as, “…..the civilization arose quickly from whatever formative base might have been present, and that it ended with equal rapidity.” Possehl in 1977 also observed that a clear evidence for the presence of ‘Late Harappan’ phase of  Indus  Civilization  was  always  there  but  largely  ignored  by  archaeologists  due  to  the‘…..distinctiveness  of the  Mature Harappan  material  culture’  and  less understanding of  the transformations preserved in the habitation atdifferent settlements. Mark Kenoyer also observed that there was a gradual shift which marked the fading of first urban civilization into the background as many new cultures emerged at the eastern, southern and northern edges of the Indus valley. Kenoyer further states that it took nearly a thousand years for the shift in cultural and political centre from the Indus Valley to the middle Ganga region.

 

The transformation marked the end of urban phase of the Indus Civilization which was sustained for nearly seven hundred years. The beginnings of this transformation have been documented at sites like Harappa and Dholavira during the last phase of Harappa phase itself. Several reasons are attributed by various scholars that were responsible for this transformation which have been summarised aptly by Possehl that is presented below for a better understanding.

 

The settlement pattern of Harappan and late/post-urban Harappan phase clearly shows the abandonment of sites in the Punjab, Cholistan and Sindh areas, while increase and continuity of sites in eastern domain of Indus Civilization and Gujarat. This shift in settlement pattern has a coincidence with the drying up of River Sarasvati, which is identified with the combined river systems of Ghaggar and Hakra.

 

2.1  Aryan Invasion Theory

 

In 1946 R.E.M. Wheeler in his report on the excavation at Harappa proposed the possibility of an Aryan invasion causing an end to the Indus Civilization (also see module on The Aryan Issue). Wheeler mentions a variety of cities mentioned in Rigveda with the word pur, meaning ‘rampart’, ‘fort’, or ‘stronghold’. Wheeler also mentions various references from Rigveda on ‘forts’ and their ‘quality’ such as ‘broad’ (prithvi), ‘wide’ (urvi), ‘of metal’ (ayasi), ‘autumnal’ (saradi), ‘with a  hundred walls’ (satabhuji), ‘made of stone’ (asmamayi), ‘use of mud-bricks in construction with epithet ama (raw, unbaked), ‘Indra as puramdara (fort-destroyer) who shatters ninety forts for his Aryan protégé, Divodasa. Wheeler also associates these forts with the just concluded excavations at Harappa and suggests that what have been assumed as mythical prove to be real. The Indus cities were identified as ‘essentially non-Aryan’ employing ‘massive fortifications’ dominating the river system of north-western India and in their opinion not far remote from the Aryans. Among the various reasons for the destruction of this ‘firmly-settled civilization’, mention was made to ‘climatic, economic, political deterioration’ but the ‘ultimate extinction’ most probably by a ‘deliberate and large-scale destruction’. Wheeler also cites about the late period of Mohenjo Daro wherein evidence for massacre of men, women and children and concluded that this was caused by the invading Aryans, and states, ‘….on circumstantial evidence, Indra stands accused’.

 

The ‘massacre’ theory of Mackay and the reasons attributed to Rigvedic Indra by Wheeler was refuted by scholars like K.A.R. Kennedy and George F. Dales who conclude that ‘…..skeletons found in the upper layers of Mohenjo-daro are actually hasty interments, nor the remains of victims of a massacre’. It is well known that the historicity of Rigveda is disputed without any consensus and different theories ranges for itsdate before and after the Indus Civilization. Scholars like B.B. Lal and R.S. Bisht also argue about the geography, material culture mentioned in Rigveda and the probable association with the extent of Indus Civilization. Thus, the linguistic data mentioned in the Rigveda needs to be properly examined with the material remains of archaeological cultures including the Indus Civilization.

 

2.2 The Theory of Natural Dam on Indus River

 

The theory of a natural dam or reservoir was first put forth by M.R. Sahni who, based on the presence of freshwater shells in a thick bedded alluvium at two hillocks near Hyderabad in Sindh, suggested a prolonged submergence in fresh water. Possehl draws attention to the creation of a ridge known as Allah Bund in northern Kachchh, during the massive earthquake in 1819, which also blocked the eastern estuaries of the Indus river thereby creating natural dams. However, this dam or bund was breached immediately during the next inundation.

 

R.L. Raikes and G.F. Dales revived the theory of M.R. Sahni and hypothesized that the damming of the Indus River occurred near Sehwan, thereby causing much inundation to Mohenjo Daro and other contemporary sites and could have been a reason for their abandonment. There were opposing views to this theory, among them the prominent was of R.J. Wasson, who pointed out that the unconsolidated sediments of the Indus plains have very less structural integrity to hold a large dam. This is also indicated by the breaching of Allah Bund pointed above by Possehl. He further elaborated that the transformation needs to be explained as a sociocultural phenomenon of the Indus Civilization and not to be found in the natural world of geomorphology.

 

2.3  Drying up of River Sarasvati

 

Some scholars like B.B. Lal, Bhagwan Singh, R.S. Bisht advocate that the geography mentioned in the Rigveda is of the Harappan region. Lal and Bisht discuss the geography along with the importance of River Sarasvati mentioned in the Rigveda through the following verses:

 

Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Sutudri (Sutlej) and Parusni (Ravi), O Marudvridha with Asikni (Chenab), O Arjikiya with Vitasta (Jhelum) and Susoma (Sohan), please listen to and accept this hymn of mine. [5]

 

Sindhu (Indus), flowing, you first meet the Tristama (and then) the Susartu, the Rasa, and the Sveta (Swat), and thereafter the Kubha (Kabul), the Gomati (Gomal), the Krumu (Kurram) with the Mehatnu; and (finally) you move on in the same chariot with them (i.e. carry their waters with you). [6]

 

This Sarasvati (river) gushes forward with her waters and protects all like a metal fortress; with her might, like a charioteer, she surpasses (lit. obstructs) all other waters (rivers). [1]

 

Purest amongst all the rivers and vibrant, the Sarasvati moves on from the mountains to the ocean, manifesting immense riches of the world, she has provided milk and ghee (clarified butter) to Nahusa. [2]

 

The above verses clearly indicate that the River Sarasvati along with other rivers like the Ganga, Yamuna and Indus was a major river and is located to the west of the River Yamuna and in between the Rivers Yamuna and Sutlej in terms of reference in RV X.75.5. The satellite and Google Earth images clearly show the dry bed of a major river in the region mentioned in the Rigveda and the location of a large number of sites datable to the Harappan phase. The investigations also indicate multiple river systems and palaeo-channels indicating a river system flowing parallel to the Indus and draining into the Rann of Kachchh, which is now identified with the river Sarasvati. The investigation of the dry bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra by several explorers and archaeologists like Aurel Stein, A. Ghosh, Katy Dalal, Rafique Mughal support this. The Cholistan area in Pakistan alone has brought to light 174 Harappan sites within a small area clearly indicating the supporting mechanism of an important water source in the river system.

 

G.L. Possehl hypothesizes that the reason for the presence of a large number of Harappan sites is “…..due to the presence of a rich inland delta in Cholistan, which created a large tract of naturally irrigated land for farming and pasture”. Based on the distribution maps of sites along the river Hakra during different cultures, Possehl opines that “…..broad outlines of the relative strength of flow in the ancient Sarasvati from Hakra Wares times through the Early Iron Age.” Possehl further argues that the increase and decrease in the number of sites during various periods indicate the relative presence of flow of water in the river system. It is also postulated by scholars that waters draining into the Indus system was captured by the east flowing rivers, thereby causing the gradual drying up of the Sarasvati at the beginning of second millennium BCE. Thus, the drying up of the Sarasvati could be one of the reasons for the end of the Civilization, if not the only cause.

 

2.4  Climatic Change

 

Another reason put forth by several scholars is the setting of aridity in the northwestern plains during the second millennium BCE. Scholars like G. Singh, A.B. Singh, R.D. Joshi and K.S. Chopra proposed a phase of aridity based on the pollen analysis from three lakes in Rajasthan, namely Sambhar, Didwana and Lunkaransar, which was the reason for the end of the Indus Civilization. Other scholars like Possehl and V.N. Mishra dispute this theory and indicate that there is no sound evidence to indicate a climatic change during second millennium BCE.

 

The major opposition to the hypothesis proposed by Singh is that both freshwater and saline lakes exist in Rajasthan in the same region and hence the increase in salinity of certain lakes can be interpreted for decrease in rainfall. Possehl suggests that the increase in salinity could be due to the tectonic activities in this region which had its effect on the underground as well as surface drainage systems. Possehl further presents the data from the site count and average settled of sites during Harappan and late Harappan phase, which indicates the same occupation area even though the number of sites increases, thereby indicating stability.

 

2.5  Multiple Factors for the Transformation

 

F.R. Allchin proposed several factors for the abandonment of urban sites, including economic factors like the decline in trade with the Mesopotamian region, which was flourishing up to c. 2000 BCE. Allchin further suggested that this decline also caused a decline in the local trade between different regions of Indus Civilization adding to the effect caused in climate and environment in Sindh and other areas, reduction in rainfall in regions around Mohenjo-daro led to its abandonment, transformations in plate tectonics that caused changes in river courses.

 

The hypotheses of Allchin have been questioned by Possehl, who states that there is no evidence for interruption in Mesopotamian trade around 2000 BCE and its impact on the entire Indus Civilization. Further, the reduction in rainfall theory is also questioned by Possehl who points out similar rainfall conditions in Sindh in adjacent areas even today.

 

2.6  Reasons for Transformation as Proposed by G.L. Possehl Possehl, based on the review of several hypotheses put forth by several scholars proposed the following reasons for transformation:

 

i) That there is still lack of clarity on the reasons for the transformation of Mature Harappan into Late Harappan phase;

ii) That the very concept of ‘eclipse’ or ‘end’ of the civilization is questionable and points out that only the urbanization processes changed drastically, while the same people of Harappan phase continued to live “….as farmers, herders and many types of craftsmen”.

iii) That the settlement pattern shift from Early to Late Harappan phases clearly indicate a ‘centre of settlement’, which shifts gradually from west to east. Thus, during Early Harappan phase, it was west of Cholistan region, the latter being the centre during Mature Harappan phase and regions of Punbaj, Haryana, northern Rajasthan, western Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat during late/post-urban Harappan phase;

iv) Tectonic movements were a major cause for “….shaping the drainage patterns of rivers, streams and lakes …..during Holocene”;

v) The end of the Indus Civilization marks an increase in number of settlements in regions like Punjab, Haryana, northern Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh, which is contradictory with the ‘eclipse’ and ‘aridity’ theory. These regions are also important in terms of ‘dry cropping’ practices depending upon the monsoon rains;

vi) Different reasons for transformations in different regions and cannot be taken as a whole for entire civilization. The reasons for transformation in Sindh and Punjab may not be the same for Gujarat or vice versa;

vii) The writing system also undergoes a major change coinciding with the transformation of Indus Civilization. While it disappears completely in Sindh area, reduced considerably and transforms into a script only representations on seals in Harappa and Dholavira; ‘abundance’ in graffitti from Gujarat, eastern domain and also instances of characters of Indus nature from Iron Age of central India of first millennium BCE, thus indicating that the script disappears completely;

viii)  Gradual and slow transformation occurred at Mohenjo Daro during the last periods of Harappan phase as indicated by the “….abandonment of the Great Bath and Granary late in the third millennium BCE”. Thus, the gradual changes in the urban forms led to the culmination of transformations which occurred in second millennium BCE;

ix) Drying of River Sarasvati caused a major impact in the abandonment of settlements, particularly in the region around Fort Derawar, as it was an inland delta, which supported major agricultural produces, virtually being a ‘bread basket’.

x) Possehl further suggests a ‘domino effect’ linking the failure of economy in Cholistan with elsewhere thereby causing the transformation.

  1. Conclusion

The above discussion clearly indicates a complex phenomenon, which led to the transformation of the Indus Civilization from urban to deurbanised stage. The major reasons proposed by scholars were Aryan invasion, climate change and environmental factors, drying up of the Sarasvati, tectonic movements altering the river courses, inland dam/reservoir, collapse in both internal and external trade with Mesopotamia, and others. While the Aryan invasion theory is completely discarded now, the other reasons may hold good either individually or collectively. It is rather difficult to pin point a single cause of this transformation and only be understood in terms of the large-scale climatic, geomorphological and archaeological data.

 

The archaeological data clearly shows abandonment of settlements in Cholistan and Sindh, while continuation and deurbanisation in Punjab, Haryana, northern Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh as well as Gujarat. In the eastern domain of the Indus Civilization area, regional cultures like Cemetery H and Bara emerge after the end of urban phase of the Indus Civilization. Similarly, Jhukar culture followed in Sindh and several regional cultures in Gujarat region. The overall picture emerges that even though the urban character of Indus Civilization ceased to exist around 1900 BCE, as pointed out by Possehl, the people of Mature Harappan phase continued to populate the region, though in a different format and survived as farmers, herders, and craftsmen in areas to the east and south parts of the original Indus Civilization.

 

you can view video on Protohistory of India and Pakistan IV: Trade and Urbanism during the Indus Civilization

Web links

  • http://www.harappa.com/
  • http://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/harappa-mohenjodaro
  • http://www.harappa.com/har/indus-saraswati.html
  • http://www.asi.nic.in/asi_exca_2007_dholavira.asp
  • http://www.asi.nic.in/asi_exca_2007_sanauli.asp
  • http://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization

Bibliography

  • Bisht, R.S., (1999) Harappans and Rgveda: Points of Convergence, G.C. Pande, (ed.) History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Delhi, 393-438.
  • Kenoyer, J.M. (1998) Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, Oxford University Press, Karachi
  • Lal, B.B. (2002) The Sarasvati Flows On – The Continuity of Indian Culture, Aryan Books International, New Delhi
  • Possehl, G.L. (2003) Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, Vistaar Publications Possehl, G.L., (1979) Ancient Cities of the Indus“, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi.
  • Possehl, G.L., (1997) The Transformation of the Indus Civilization, Journal of World Prehistory Vol. 11(4), pp. 425-472.
  • Possehl, G.L., (1999) Indus Age; The Beginnings, Oxford and IBH Publishing, New Delhi. Singh, B., (1995) The Vedic Harappans, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi