19 Prehistory of India and Pakistan I : Development of Indus Civilization-Ceramic Traditions

Rajesh S.V.

Introduction

Many settlements of the Indus Civilization are located in the areas well beyond the Indus river valley and therefore the civilization is referred to as civilization of the Greater Indus valley or Indus-Sarasvati Civilization. The Greater Indus Region extends from Shortugai in Afghanistan in the north to Daimabad on the banks of the Pravara in western India (Maharashtra). Its western boundary is marked by Sutkagen Dor whereas Manpur marks its eastern limit. With more than 2500 known sites spread across a landscape measuring over 1 million square kilometers, the Indus Civilization is the most geographically expansive state‐level society in the ancient world. This Civilization can be dated from c. 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. In order to define various cultural changes that occurred during the Indus Civilization; diverse terminologies emerged over a period of time as more number of researchers worked in separate geographical areas of the greater Indus region. These researchers felt that each stage of change needs to be defined separately so as to understand the origin, development, changes and decline of the Indus Civilization. They also felt that the process of cultural change within the greater Indus region is the result of an amalgamation of several traits from its various sub-regions. This led to a great diversity in its nomenclature, which now arouses confusion. Therefore, it is necessary to define these terminologies and bring them under relevant cultural terms indicative of the processes. The terms Regionalization Era, Integration Era and Localization Era are in use for assessing the development of the Indus Civilization. These terminologies are adopted from Shaffer and Lichtenstein, who proposed these terms supported by the radiocarbon dates from several sites distributed across the greater Indus region, assigning it as a product of interactive network among the ‘contemporary ethnic communities’ of that period within the region who shared several common traits and at the same time maintained their identity. Thus, the cultures referred to as Pre-Harappan or Proto-Harappan or Antecedent Harappan or Pre-Urban Harappan or Early Harappan or Early Indus Culture or Pre-Early Indus or Pre-Early Harappa or Pre-Pre-Harappa Culture are described under the Regionalization Era (c. 5000 – 2600 BCE), while Mature Harappan or Classical Harappan or Urban Harappan or Sindhi Harappan or Harappan are placed within the Integration Era (c. 2600 – 1900 BCE) and Late Harappan or Post-Urban Harappan or Post Harappan are grouped under the Localization Era (c. 1900 – 1000 BCE).

2. Objectives

In this chapter, we will briefly describe the characteristic features and cultural changes that occurred during the Indus Civilization from the beginning of Regionalization Era to the end of Integration Era. This chapter will incorporate details of various ceramics traditions existing in Greater Indus region.

3. Regionalization Era

During the Regionalization Era (c. 5000-2600 BCE), inhabitants of the Greater Indus region were organized into several regional cultures distinguishable from one another on the basis of pottery as well as other aspects of material culture. During this era, the inhabitants developed subsistence systems, interregional interaction networks, technological capabilities, and social hierarchies necessary for the emergence of urban state-level society. The regional phases located in the Amri-Nal Phase in Sindh and Baluchistan, Kot Diji Phase in Punjab and Cholistan, Sothi-Siswal Phase in Punjab and Haryana have the earliest evidence of the technological and social preconditions of the Integration Era i.e. diverse and abundant subsistence and resource base, establishment of socio‐economic interaction systems that link resource areas, the technological expertise and capacity to fulfill the needs of both urban and state level society, and mechanisms for establishing and reinforcing status differentiation or social hierarchies. Regional social complexity and the emergence of social hierarchies are reflected in the growth of small Regionalization Era agro‐pastoral settlements into villages and large towns during Integration Era. A pattern of wealth creation based on control of technology and distribution of finished products was also established during this era. Archaeological researches in North Gujarat, Saurashtra and Kachchh regions also provide evidence for the independent establishment of villages and towns during this period. Excavations at Harappa have confirmed a clear and gradual evolution of Classical Harappan material culture and social practice from the earliest Ravi-Hakra Phase and later Kot-Diji Phase. This continuous developmental trajectory at Harappa clearly shows that Punjab was the core area of urban emergence. There are different phases that make up the Regionalization Era: Bhurj Basket Marked Phase, Togau Phase, Kechi Beg Phase, Hakra Ware Phase, Amri-Nal Phase, Kot Dijian Phas, Sothi-Siswal Phase and Damb Sadaat Phase.

3.1 Bhurj Basket Marked Phase

It represents the beginning of village farming communities, pastoral camps and introduction of ceramics in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan during c.5000-4300 BCE. The first occupation at Mehrgarh represented by the archaeological Period IA is aceramic or pre-pottery. The first ceramics of Period IB of Mehrgarh were soft, buff, chaff tempered and handmade. The shapes were simple and probably intended to meet the immediate needs. To some extent these shapes had similarities with those from the sites on the Iranian Plateau. From Mehrgarh IIA, ceramics are known from domestic context. The shapes are incipient forms of basins, bowls, pots and jars. The technology employed for their production is named as slabbing. Studies on Mehrgarh pottery also point to the evolution of techniques from basketry. Wheel made pottery appears from Mehrgarh IIB, at times expanded by using paddle and anvil. Compartmented buildings were constructed during the Bhurj Basket Marked Phase.

3.2 Togau Phase

It is a period of significant growth in population and number of settlements. 84 sites of this Phase (c. 4300-3800 BCE) are reported from Baluchistan, Kandahar and Northwest Frontier Pakistan. Quetta Miri is the largest site of this phase. Agriculture and herding were well established during this Period. There was craft specialization in metallurgy, bead manufacture and potting. Wheel technology became increasingly common in the Togau Phase. The ceramics of Togau are fine, wheelmade and slipped in red and painted with black. The rim portions of the vessels are also definable. Bowls are the dominant shapes. The identity of these Wares rests on its surface designs, which are primarily naturalistic and stylized figures of ungulates. In South Asian designs these are perhaps the earliest examples of stylization and its evolution. This phase also witnessed significant craft activities. Mehrgarh was the hub of commerce. This phase also revealed evidences for melting, refining and possibly smelting of copper in a domestic type building with three walls. Other finds include grinding stones, pestles, flint tools, drill bits, beads of steatite paste and shell bangles. Compartmented buildings were also constructed in this period.

3.3 Kechi Beg Phase

In this Phase (c. 3800-3200 BCE), there was a significant growth in the number of settlements. 153 sites of this Phase are reported from Baluchistan, Kandahar and Northwest Frontier Pakistan. Dabar Kot is the largest site. Major sites of this period are Kechi Beg, Anjira and Sheri Khan Tarakai. A large number of terracotta figurines of both humans and cattle were found from this phase. Other finds include terracotta cones, spindle whorls, terracotta boats, bangles, beads, bone tools, ground stone tools and chipped stone tools. The faunal remains from Sheri Khan Tarakai include zebu (Bos indicus), sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). The Kechi Beg Phase is the most poorly known period at Mehrgarh, where Periods IV, V and VI have traces of this assemblage. It is clear that there was continuity in metallurgy and some interesting changes in the subsistence regime. At Mehrgarh, grape pips occur in this phase and persist through all subsequent periods until the abandonment of the site. The ascendancy of barley over wheat also seems to take place during this period. Its pottery include Zari Ware, Basket marked Ware of Togau, Anjira Ware and Nal ceramics. The Kechi Beg ceramic forms include open bowls and small mouthed bowls and globular jars. A variety of clay pastes seem to have used for its production. Similarly its surfaces were slipped with different colours; dominantly red and buff. Vessels with polychrome effect were also encountered in this phase. These are wheel made and the examples of coiling are rare. Majority of them are well oxidized as evident from its fully oxidized core. Delicate line drawings forming geometric patterns executed in black on buff or yellow brown slip are also encountered.

3.4 Hakra Phase

The evidence for Hakra Phase (c. 3800-3200 BCE) occupation can be noticed at sites in the Swat Valley, West Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. The greatest concentration of Hakra Ware is in north-central Indus region. While assigning Hakra to a separate ethnic group, researchers have also noticed a ceramic tradition attached to it. The ceramics of this group are handmade, red in colour having multiple incised lines which are sometimes parallel and at times wavy. Its shapes are pots, dish on stand, basins and dishes. Large number of microliths is reported from Hakra sites. From Sarai Khola I, bone points, punches and spatulas were excavated. The specialized crafts like ceramic production, metal working and shell working were also practiced by them. Large number of pastoral camps sites of this phase was reported from Bahawalpur. Stone walls, square rooms and oval pit houses were reported from Loebnar III. Stone slab covered burials of this period were reported from Kherai. Bones of cattle, sheep/goat/gazelle, and pig were reported from various sites. Wheat, oats, rice, lentil, barley, field pea and grapes were reported from this phase.

3.5 Amri-Nal Phase

The Amri-Nal Phase (c. 3200-2600 BCE) was first described in the writings of Walter Fairservis. The people of this phase inhabited Southern Baluchistan, Western Sindh and Gujarat. Nearly 164 sites of this phase have been discovered from these regions. These regions appear to have been bound together by the seasonal movement of agro-pastoralists and their itinerants. There is an overlap between the Amri-Nal and the Kot Diji Phase sites in southwestern Sindh. In addition, majority of the Amri-Nal sites have some Kot Diji ceramics indicating the economic, socio-cultural and political interaction between these people. The Amri ceramics are fine and well made, light red or buff in colour. Its designs develop from exclusively geometric to more curvilinear motifs. Its shapes are bowls, jars and tall vases with simple rim forms. The Nal ceramics enjoys a special status due to its manufacturing techniques and attractive appearance. These are fine, buff to pink in colour with a very light slip. The characteristic vessel forms are canister and straight sided bowls with a simple, knife edge rim and pots. It is elaborately painted with a variety of colours and the designs include both geometric and naturalistic.

3.6 Damb-Sadaat Phase

The Damb-Sadaat Phase (c. 3200-2600 BCE) is found in the Quetta valley and surrounding valleys of northern Baluchistan. Around 37 sites of this phase have been reported from these regions. The ceramic motifs of the Damb Sadaat phase are widely shared, extending into Central Asia. Pottery of Damb Sadaat phase was also slipped. Its varieties include Quetta Ware, Wet Ware and Faiz Mohammad Grey Ware. Quetta Ware is black on buff and wheel made. Its designs comprise of geometric and naturalistic patterns. Its shapes are bowls, vases, pots, dishes, bowl on stand and jars. The Faiz Mohammad pottery shapes include shallow open bowls, jars, lids, vases and goblets. It is wheel made, its surface being smooth to sandy, decorated with red or black paintings comprising of geometric and naturalistic designs. Its decorations are either confined to the interior or exterior. It has a unique firing technique of baking in two stages, first in an oxidizing atmosphere whereby the product gets a red to buff colour followed by a second baking in inadequate supply of oxygen which turns it to grey or black. The valleys of Quetta and Pishin were key routes of communication between the Indus Plains and Afghanistan, and the sites of the Damb Sadaat Phase were key players in these communications.

3.7 Kot Diji Phase

Sites with Kot Diji Phase (c. 3200-2600 BCE) are found in the Kirthar Range, the alluvial areas of northern Sindh, the Punjab, Northwest Frontier and Cholistan. Around 111 sites of this phase have been reported from these regions. The Kot Dijian ceramics do have a resemblance with Amri-Nal. Its ceramics are thin and are light in weight. These are well decorated and the paintings are geometric and naturalistic. Its shapes are pots, bowls, basins, dish on stand, lids and dishes. Within the Kot Dijian ceramic repertoire there are three other ceramic types which are distinct in surface treatment. These are termed as Bhoot Ware, Wet Ware and Sand Rusticated Ware. Bhoot Ware has deep grooves on its surface. This surface treatment occurs on small globular pots, generally with the Kot Diji rim. These pots are porous and do not have any burnishing on its surface. Wet Ware has a crinkled surface, which ranges from simple dendritic pattern to regular geometric pattern. Its common shapes are pots. The third category, that is, the Sand Rusticated Ware has an extra coat of sand or mud on its surface. Vessels with this kind of surface treatment are also found among the Amri, Damb Sadaat and Sothi-Siswal assemblages. In Damb Sadaat assemblage it is called Khojak parallel striated pottery, while in Sothi-Siswal contexts it is categorized as ‘Fabric B’. One of the most striking features is that two varieties of paintings; fish scale pattern and the horned deity continue to occur in the classical Harappan phase also.

3.8 Sothi-Siswal Phase

The Sothi-Siswal sites are found in the Indian Punjab, Haryana and northern Rajasthan. 165 sites of this Phase (c. 3200-2600 BCE) have been reported. There are broad similarities between Sothi Siswal and Kot Diji ceramics. The Sothi-Siswal pottery, which is predominantly found in northern Rajasthan and Haryana, has been categorized as fabrics A to F. These six varieties vary in their technique of throwing, forms and surface treatments. Fabric A is poorly potted with painted designs in faint black and at times white was also added. Pots of Fabric B have rusticated lower portion and smooth upper portion. The Periano Wet Ware in northern Baluchistan could also be classified as Fabric B. Fabric C is a fine Ware with smooth outer surface. Vessels have slip in red, purple or plum red colour. Fabric D is a thick sturdy Ware and shapes in it include storage jars, troughs and basins. The interior of Fabric D basins have comb-incised decorations and grooved Bhoot Ware also occur in this fabric. Fabric E is Buff Ware in nature while Fabric F is Grey Ware. Vessel form includes flange neck jars, flat lids and globular jar with short, vertical rim are important forms in Fabric F.

3.9 Other Ceramic Traditions

It is important to note that the site at Bagor in Rajasthan also falls within the Regionalization Era in terms of its time and space. The ceramic from Bagor is made of gritty and micaceous clay. It is either handmade or on a slow wheel/turn table. Majority of them are not well fired and also it appears that incipient stages of Black and Red Ware technology prevailed here. The vessel forms are broad mouthed jars, small lota like pots, large shallow basins, smaller and deeper basins and bowls in a range of sizes. Its designs are incised and include groups of parallel bands, chevrons, herring-bone patterns, crisscrosses, groups of short strokes and finger nail incisions.

Towards the borders of the greater Indus region, along the north Gujarat, the Anarta ceramic tradition is recognized. Its varieties are Gritty Red Ware, fine Red Ware, and burnished Red and Grey/Black Wares. These are either made by hand or on a slow wheel. Its common forms are straight or convex sided bowls with incurved rims, basins with thick flaring rim, pots/jars with flaring rim, constricted neck and bulbous body. The paintings on these are executed in red, black and white. Apart from many sites in North Gujarat, it is also found associated with the Integration Era in various parts of Gujarat. A second ceramic type recognized as representing a regional tradition in Gujarat is the Padri Ware. It is generally coarse with a thick red slip, either made by hand or on a slow wheel, with a variety of shapes, namely, bowls with straight/incurved/convex sides, some with a stud handle, basins, globular pots, dish on stands and perforated jars. Its main distribution is said to be within the immediate peripheries of its type site, ‘Padri’ and its scanty presence is noticed in some far away sites within Gujarat. It also continues during the Integration Era as well. The third regional ceramic tradition of Gujarat is known as Pre-Prabhas Pottery recovered from Prabhas Patan/Somnath. These are mostly handmade, corrugated and broadly incised. Its shapes are wide mouthed jars, deep shallow basins, flat bottomed basin with flaring sides and incised rims. Its distribution is very limited; however, its appearance is noticed in one more site, Datrana.

Another noteworthy ceramic found in association with a wider cultural and temporal context is the Black and Red Ware. It possesses a unique property of imitating its associated forms and less commonly has its own shapes. It is hand/wheel made and the contrasting colour effect on both the surfaces are said to be either the result of inverted firing or by keeping the vessels mouth to mouth while baking, thereby arresting the supply of oxygen to the interiors. An additional ceramic that has been identified as a part of the Regionalization Era is usually defined based on its surface treatment and is known as Reserved Slip Ware. The incipient varieties of these are encountered in the Regionalization Era. In the Integration Era its techniques undergo greater changes and Mackay refers to these as ‘Glazed Reserved Slip Ware.’ The occurrences of incipient varieties of these have been noticed from Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.

Chronologically Ahar/Banas Culture begins within this time period and continues to exist till the Localization Era. The Ahar/Banas ceramics included fine Wares like Tan Ware, Thin Red Ware and Black and Red Ware with coarse varieties; thick Red Ware and Gray Ware. The fine Wares are made of well -levigated clay. These have a slipped and burnished surface. They are well baked and sturdy. Tan Ware has a close affinity to Harappan pottery, and its main forms are carinated dishes, dish-on-stand of various sizes, and globular jars with deep grooves between appliqué ridges on the exterior. The Thin Red Ware mainly consists of convex-sided bowls and lota (tumbler) like vessels. In the Black-and-Red Ware the main shapes are straight sided as well as carinated shallow and deep bowls. They are painted on both surfaces in white pigment with geometric motifs. The coarse Wares are poorly fired and comprise of jars and handis. The vessels are decorated with shallow grooves below the neck and with a variety of incised, applique and cut designs below the grooves on the external surface.

4. Integration Era

At the beginning of the Integration Era (c. 2600-1900 BCE), most of the regional cultures of the Greater Indus Valley and adjoining regions integrated into a widespread urban society, i.e. Harappa Phase. The notion of Integration Era suggests the growth and maturation of a cultural tradition that extend back to the beginnings of village farming communities and pastoral camps. Pronounced homogeneity in material culture of the urban society distributed over a vast area, technologically complex craft activities, standardized weights and measures, use of script and long distance maritime trade are the characteristic features of this period. Major excavations related to this Phase include Harappa, Mohenjo Daro, Rakhigarhi, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Lothal, Banawali, Allahdino, Balakot, Chanhu Daro, Surkotada, Shikarpur, Nageshwar, Nagwada, Kanmer, Khirsara and Bagasra.

The Harappan Phase is noted for town planning and the grid pattern was noticed in some of the Harappan settlements and in many sites, major streets intersect at right angles. Many of the sites have bipartite division known as Citadel and Lower town indicating the class structure in the society. Excavated sites revealed complex, mud brick, fired brick and stone structures. Multi-room habitation and non-habitation units were grouped into large blocks separated by streets. In public architectural units such as fortification walls, streets, platforms, drainage system, cemetery, open areas, nonindustrial buildings along with industrial areas are present at large urban sites like Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. Water management system and burial monuments at Dholavira are also spectacular.

The Harappan subsistence economy was very complex and involved a number of winter and monsoon crops including wheat, barley, rice, dates, cotton, melons, peas, sesame, chick-peas and millets. Rice and cotton represent significant additions to the economy. In many sites, emphasis on cattle over sheep and goat continued and variety of wild animals appear. Increased use of fish and shell fish during this phase was noticed at many sites of Integration Era. Use of marine resources, existence of shell industry and wide spread distribution of marine shells suggest that the exploitation of marine resources were important.

This era yielded evidence for the existence of a script having more than 400 letters. The evidences for the script are available on seals, sealings, metal artefacts, stone Ware bangles and pottery. Dholavira, yielded the largest Indus sign board.

5. Classical Harappan Pottery

The ceramics of this era, popularly known as “Classical Harappan Pottery” is made of very well refined clay. It is well baked, mostly thrown on wheel, gives a metallic sound when struck. Occasionally they are sturdy. Its colour is mostly reddish pink and buff (which is smaller in quantity). Its specific types are dish on stand (offering stands), goblets, beakers, s-profile jars, perforated jars and black-slipped jars. Very small percentage of Classical Harappan Pottery is decorated. The designs found on them are either a combination of geometric and naturalistic designs or anyone of it. For painting, a contrasting colour preferably black on red and dark brown on buff are often used.

6. Other Ceramic Traditions

The Classical Harappan Pottery tradition is associated with several other regional ceramic traditions; some appeared before the Integration Era. These traditions are Kulli Harappan, Punjabi Harappan, eastern Harappan, Quetta Phase, Late Kot Dijian, Micaceous Red Ware, Sorath Harappan and Prabhas Ware distributed within the Greater Indus Region.

The Kulli ceramics include both fine and coarse Wares. These are Red Ware, Bichrome Ware and Brown Ware. Its shapes are dishes, dish on stand, bowls, lids, beakers, large storage jars, basins and perforated jars. It has characteristic decorations where a goggle eyed animals portrayed within framed landscapes, rows of caprids, common plant motives, animal motives and also ridges due to which G.L. Possehl named Ridged Ware.

Within the region of Gujarat Micaceous Red Ware, Black and Red Ware, Sorath Harappan and Prabhas Ware are found in association with the Classical Harappan Pottery. The Micaceous Red Ware is hand/mould made and has a thick pink to light brown/grey glossy slip with smooth surface and appears as dusted with tiny mica particles. The vessel forms represented are convex sided bowl with or without stud handle, shallow dish-basin, globular jar, lamp, bottle and perforated jars. The Sorath Harappan ceramics, a regional manifestation of the Classical Harappans, have similarities in manufacturing techniques with that of the Classical Harappan Pottery. Its variations are mainly seen in certain forms, such as bowls, stud-handled bowls, dishes, dish on stand, perforated jars, the main differences being in the rim forms and certain decorations. Its shapes undergo variations towards the Localization Era and are known as Late Sorath Harappans. During the middle phase of the Integration Era, another distinct type of pottery called Prabhas Pottery appears. It mainly consists of bowls with beveled rim and jars/pots with an everted short rim and incipient neck. A great majority of them are burnished and have panel designs executed either with black or purple or violet. Its decorative patterns are generally geometric forms; horizontal and vertical lines, dots and other forms executed in horizontal panels or registers at the rim or at the shoulder.

Another ceramic type that spans during the Integration and Localization Eras in Punjab and Haryana are the ceramics of Bara culture. It is a sturdy Black on Red Painted Ware. It has reminiscence of the Classical Harappan ceramics. Its vessel forms are bowls, dishes, basins, dish on stand and high necked globular jars. Goblets of the Classical Harappan type also continue in Bara culture. Decorations on this type include incised designs, painted motifs comprising of linear and jali pattern, plant motif and fish designs. Some of these motifs show resemblance to those from the Regionalization Era from Kalibangan, Amri, Kot-Diji and some sites in Baluchistan.

Chronologically Savalda culture also shares a contemporaneity with the Integration and subsequent Localization Era. It has three types of ceramics, namely Sturdy Red Ware (fine), Savalda Ware (coarse) and Kayatha Ware. The Sturdy Red Ware has a close resemblance with the black on Red Ware of the Integration Era. Its shapes are bowls with featureless rim, globular storage jars and basins. The vessel forms of Savalda Ware include rimless bowls and high necked storage jars. Its painted designs are geometric and naturalistic (animals and hunting scenes) motifs. The Neolithic phase of Kashmir also witnessed certain ceramic types that have resemblance in decorations with the same in the pottery of the Regionalization and Integration Eras of the greater Indus region.

Lapidary crafts were highly developed, and Indus Civilization’s characteristic artefacts such as etched and long barrel carnelian beads, cubical weights, steatite seals and shell and faience objects were manufactured in large quantity and widely distributed in Greater Indus Region. Highly specialized craft items such as stone Ware bangles were produced in limited quantity. Another major change has been noted in the lithic industry, where pointed and cutting stone tools are replaced by metal tools to a significant degree. Copper/bronze, silver, gold and lead metallurgy is remarkable for the diverse objects and for their widespread distribution in various contexts. Sophistication of Harappan material culture clearly indicates the presence of full-time and part-time craft specialists and craft activities.

In many regions like Bahawalpur, number of Harappan Phase sites increases compared to the Regionalization Era and many of them are permanent settlements. Irrespective of their sizes, many of the settlements were involved in industrial activities such as production of ceramics, fired bricks and metallurgy. In the Sindh region, Harappan Phase sites are less numerous, smaller and widely dispersed. It might be reflecting more dispersed agricultural resources. In North Gujarat and Saurashtra, numerous camp sites suggest the presence of pastoral nomads. At the same time, in settlements like Lothal, Surkotada, Kuntasi, Shikarpur, Rangpur, Kanmer, Khirsara, Desalpur, Juni Kuran, Bagasra, Harappan artefacts and features are found associated with regional styles of ceramics. Many of the settlements in the Gujarat were smaller in dimensions to those in the central Indus region. Somewhat similar pattern is occurring at eastern Punjab region.

Social groups in the central Indus region played a vital role in the development and maintenance of the Integration Era. It is possible that this area was one of the industrial regions for the manufacture of many characteristic ceramic, lithic, shell, and metal artefacts. Once processed, these goods were distributed throughout the Indus Valley via Harappan Interaction System. It refers to all avenues of inter-site communication that were responsible for the distribution of Harappan Phase characteristics throughout the Greater Indus Region. It represents an intensification and formalization of similar patterns already present in the Regionalization Era.

Multiple levels of trade and exchange system existed during Integration Era i.e. local, regional, extra-regional and International. The people of Harappan Phase used animals and bullock carts for carrying raw materials and finished products from one place to another. For riverine and marine transport they used boats. There is evidence for strong contacts between the Indus Civilization, Mesopotamians and Egyptians through the Gulf, using the marine route. The evidences for the contact between the Indus Civilization, Oman, UAE and Bahrain are also available. There is also evidence that the Harappans were in contact with the states of northern Afghanistan and Central Asia using an overland route. The presence of Harappan Phase settlement of Shortugai in Afghanistan is the outcome of contact between the Quetta valley and Central Asia that goes back at least as far as the Regionalization Era.

7. Localization Era

The term Localization Era (c. 1900-1000 BCE) encompasses the period following the principal urban occupations at Mohenjo Daro, Harappa and the urban phase sites coincident with the period of literacy and the making of the classic Indus stamp seals. Our knowledge about this era is chiefly based on ceramics and in this period, particular Harappan decorative elements and vessel forms were blended with regional ceramic styles that had persisted in varying degrees. Though it was thought that a significant cultural discontinuity separated Protohistoric Bronze Age from early historic Iron Age developments in South Asia; excavations at Bhagawanpura defined a stratigraphic-cultural overlap of these periods. By the end of the Localization Era, in some regions there appears to have been a transition from this Harappan related pottery into the gray and red Wares characteristic of Painted Gray Ware groups which persist into Iron Age.

During this period, the long distance/inter regional trade, one of the characteristics of Integration Era appears to have largely broken down and the major geographic regions that had been encompassed by the Urban Harappan period were differentiated from one another on the basis of ceramics and other aspects of material culture. Harappan-style shell, semiprecious stone, metal, and faience objects were still made and distributed while, at the same time other characteristic artefacts such as stamp seals, triangular cakes, miniature cart frames and wheels, perforated pottery, stone Ware bangles, cubical weights, and fired bricks either disappeared or like Indus script, became rare. Mud-brick buildings are known and in some regions these buildings were associated with semi circular wattle and daub structures. Several Harappan settlements including urban centres were abandoned, and many new smaller settlements were established. Very little is known about the subsistence economy and this phase showed increase in the use of wild animals as food. In other food habits, a basic resemblance to that of the Harappan phase may be assumed. Major Phases, identified in the Localization Era are Punjabi Phase, Jhukar Phase and Rangpur Phase.

7.1 Punjab Phase

Sites of the Punjab Phase (c. 1900-1300 BCE) are located in the central and north-central Indus region and include Cemetery H at Harappa, Mitathal IIB Phase, Bhagwanpura IA-B Phase, and Siswal C-D Phase sites. At Bahawalpur, during this phase, the number of sites decreases from those of the Harappan Phase by almost two-thirds and most of these represent new settlements. In this region, number of industrial sites decreased while the camp sites increased. The Punjab Phase more closely resembles the Kot Diji Phase than the preceding Harappan Phase. Pottery from this phase is generally referred to as Late Harappan or Cemetery H. Limited examples of pottery with white paint/slip found associated with this Phase are probably intrusive Jhukar Phase examples.

Wheeler observed differences in ceramics from two strata of cemetery H at Harappa, and according to him these variations were functional. One set (large Pots of stratum I) were meant to contain actual burials, whereas the second set (Stratum II) served only as grave furniture. The superior workmanship of these ceramics is assigned to the techniques of preparing clay, potting and baking. These ceramics have oxidized core and bright red slip. Its shapes are ellipsoid jars, round jars, bowls, lota, carinated pots, lids, dishes on squat stands, ghatas/water pots and dishes. The paintings on the ceramics are geometrical and natural and these patterns are unconnected. The painted designs in jet black colour are often slightly blurred at the edges. The decorative patterns on the ceramics include star, fish, peacock, ox and goat.

7.2 Jhukar Phase

Jhukar Phase is found mainly in the sites of Sindh region such as Amri, Chanhu Daro, Jhukar and Mohenjo Daro. In these sites, Jhukar and Harappan Phase pottery overlap and a great deal of stylistic similarity can be observed. Although, Jhukar Phase occupation is stratigraphically later than the Harappan Phase. In this Phase, stamp seals continue and they are circular made from terracotta or faience, without script, and are geometric or rarely zoomorphic in pattern. Though mud brick structures are present, they are very limited in quantity.

The Jhukar Culture pottery is comparable with the ceramics from Chanhu Daro II, Amri IIIC (the upper levels) and IIID. Similarly these are also reported from the upper levels of Mohenjo Daro and Lohumjo Daro. The Jhukar Culture primarily refers to certain pottery designs and shapes which are different from those of the characteristic ceramics of the Integration Era but are found with them in the later period. Its painted designs are black on red slip with an additional use of red or brown or white pigments. The common designs are groups of connected semi circular lines or loops, rows of elongated lozenges resembling fish designs, circles with red dots, leaf designs with thick lines, loops on the rims of dishes, squares, cross and multiple zigzag lines. Within the early levels of Jhukar, Reserved slip and buff bodied Quetta Wet Wares also occur.

7.3 Rangpur Phase

This phase is chiefly identified in Gujarat where it is best exemplified by Rangpur IIC, III and Lothal B type sites. Rangpur phase pottery is also reported from Ahar and Navdatoli in western and central India. At Rangpur and Lothal, this phase is stratigraphically later than the Harappan phase. This Phase can be dated between c. 1900 and 1000 BCE. By the advent of the Rangpur Phase, many Harappan sites including Lothal were abandoned, but there was an increase in smaller settlements with Rangur IIC type pottery. Rangpur III settlements were even fewer in number and smaller in size. These changes can be interpreted as the resurgence of pastoral nomadism and dry farming which may have been associated with the availability of domesticated millet. Increase in the number of smaller settlements following the abandonment of Harappan Phase sites is similar to the Punjab Phase except for the continuous presence of a few large size settlements there.

Lustrous Red Ware, an important ceramic type of the Localization Era, was first reported at Rangpur. At Rangpur, this ceramic type made its first appearance in Period IIC in limited quantity followed by an increase in quantity in Period III. Subsequently, these ceramics were reported from many sites in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra. The fabric of Lustrous Red Ware is coarse while its fine varieties are rare. These ceramics are treated with a bright slip and burnished, due to which it has a shiny surface. Colour of these ceramics ranged from tan, orange, bright red to purple. Major shapes of this variety are bowls, basins, dishes, pots/jars and dish on stand with corrugated stem. In many sites, it is associated with Painted Black and Red Ware and Coarse Red Ware). It usually bears geometric and natural decorations in black colour.

7.4 Other Ceramic Traditions

The Localization Era within the Greater Indus Region witnessed the continuity of several ceramic traditions and at the same time found the appearance of amalgamated traditions such as Bara, Cemetery H pottery, Jhukar, Jhangar, Early Pirak, Early Gandhara Grave Culture Pottery, Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP), Micaceous Red Ware, Late Sorath Harappan, Lustrous Red Ware, Prabhas Ware, Ahar/Banas, Kayatha, Malwa, Savalda and Jorwe. Some of them continue with few evolutionary trends from the Integration Era, while some appear during the Localization Era.

The ceramics of Gandharan Grave Culture recovered from the Swat Valley include large quantities of plain pottery either buff, red or gray and have distinct range of forms. Its shapes included tall champagne goblets, pedestal cups, beakers with flared mouths, bottles with tall narrow necks, jugs with raised lips, spouted pots-some with small handles and triple pot with three stems rising from a base. Jhangar, first reported by Majumdar at the site of Kotrio and later at Chanhu Daro and at Amri, is marked by a distinct black and gray burnished pottery either with a plain surface or decorated. Its decorations include incised geometric and linear designs, associated with a few Red Wares having a rare painted decoration of chocolate on buff or light red slip. Its shapes are pots, jars and bowls.

Another significant ceramic type of the Localization Era was found at Pirak. Its early phase ceramics are handmade painted coarse Wares and also decorated with appliqué bands and finger tip impressions. Polychrome globular vessels and cups with handles were introduced at Pirak after the Integration era. These were mostly painted with geometric designs. This typical pottery of Pirak is quite different from that of the Integration Era, but at the same time has some affinities with pottery produced at Mehrgarh in the Regionalization Era. Pottery similar to the one belonging to the post-Indus phase at Pirak has also been found from sites in Baluchistan Highlands, which indicates some degree of Pirak Culture in this region.

Within the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, the Localization Era is characterized by the appearance of Ochre Coloured Pottery. It is illfired, red in colour and heavily weathered with the slip peeling off. It is generally accepted that its condition is the result of prolonged water logging within the region where they were found. Its shapes comprise of storage jars, vases, basins, bowls, dish on stand and miniature pots. These are similar to the Classical Harappan Pottery in shapes. These ceramics are sometimes decorated with incised designs, graffiti and paintings in black pigment. Some scholars consider it as an independent ceramic technique while others think it as poorer version of Harappan pottery. Kayatha Culture is another Chalcolithic Culture that appears during the Localization Era. The Characteristic ceramic type of the Kayatha culture is the chocolate-slipped, sturdy and well baked Wares. The shapes in the Ware are convex sided jars and carinated dishes,similar to those of the Tan Ware of the Ahar culture. Occasionally the pots were decorated with linear designs in black pigment. Other Wares of this culture are Buff Ware with paintings in red and Combed Ware in which the decoration consists of groups of incised wavy lines. Apart from this, it also has handmade Gray Ware in which the shapes are handis, basins and storage jars.

Within the chronological framework the next significant one is the Malwa Culture. Malwa Ware is made on wheel and has a buff or cream slip and bears painted patterns in dark brown or black pigment. The main vessel forms are lota, storage jars, bowls, dishes, channel spouted bowls and pedestalled goblet. Its decorations are mainly paintings, comprising of geometric designs, such as, triangles and lozenges (diamond shaped) and naturalistic designs of animals such as birds, dancing human figures and plants. Sankalia suggested some similarities between the vessels of the Malwa Ware and ceramics from Iran. The next one is the Jorwe Culture characterized by Jorwe Ware, which is wheel made and well fired. Its pots are painted in black on red background with simple geometric motifs. The characteristic vessel shapes are spouted jars and carinated bowls. Another ceramic type of Jorwe is Red/Gray Ware. This is very coarse and handmade and its probable function is cooking. The third ceramic is Black and Red Ware similar in forms and fabric to those of Ahar culture. The main shapes are bowls and some of them bear paintings in white. In the late phase of the Jorwe Culture, all ceramics of Early Jorwe period continues and black on red pottery undergoes a noticeable change. The ceramics became coarse, with gritty core, with a major decrease in paintings. The concave sided carinated bowl is replaced by a convex sided one and the other vessel forms continue.

8.Conclusion

In this chapter we have seen the cultural changes have occurred during the course of the Indus Civilization from the Regionalization Era to Integration Era, delineated through a study of ceramic types that distinguish each of these phases. The chapter also traces the way the transformation from one stage to another occurred.

Web links

• www.harappa.com
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=juc3msgLMoc
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCYx-_WqcKc
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XvrE38HL0HM
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=joFlQItvc7Q
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SdGbamPgf8o
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization
• www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization

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