35 Megaliths of South India : Regional Variants

Srikumar M. Menon

1. Introduction

In the previous module we have seen the entire gamut of megalith types distributed all over peninsular India and also in a few pockets to the north, such as Vidarbha region in Maharashtra, Jharkand, Jammu and Kashmir, etc. We have seen how most megaliths fall into a few broad types based upon form of the lithic markers above the ground and the type of subterranean structures found beneath, such as boulder circles, menhirs or dolmens and cist burials, pit burials etc. However, in the study of megalithic forms, we encounter some unique megalith types that are endemic to a given geographical region within the subcontinent and not found anywhere else. The most striking example is the southern portion of the tiny strip of land bounded on the east by the chain of the Western Ghats and on the west by the Arabian Sea. Distributed in the present-day states of Kerala and Karnataka, this region contains unique megalith types not found anywhere else in India, or the world.

We have already seen how many megaliths evolved to form a chamber for interment of the mortal remains of dead persons, with an unlined pit, or stone slab lined chamber serving as the reliquary, with surface markers of varied appearance such as mounds and cairns, or menhirs, etc. The actual appearance of a megalith in a given region depends upon the geology of the region and the nature of the material available for construction. For instance dolmens in granite-rich regions tend to be made of large thin slabs – something which the nature of the rock permits, in comparison to dolmens in regions where limestone or sandstone are predominant, which tend to have shorter and thicker slabs.

Some of the monuments classified by archaeologists as megaliths in the laterite-rich regions of Kerala and southern coastal Karnataka are very different in appearance to megaliths elsewhere. Though one finds conventional megalith forms too, such as boulder circles, dolmens and menhirs too in these regions, there are some megaliths which are unique and found strictly in this region

– the mushroom shaped kudakkal and the domical topikal being striking examples. The rock-cut burial chambers scooped out of the soft laterite strata form another class of megaliths that are endemic to this region.

As we shall see in the coming sections, these variations in form are largely a result of the adaptation of the megalithic concepts to fit the nature of the materials available for construction.

2. Objectives

In this chapter we examine some variants in megalithic form that are endemic to certain geographical regions, with an emphasis on the megaliths of Kerala.

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We shall also examine the material from which the variant megalithic forms are constructed and try to understand how the nature of this material results in the variation in form.

3. Megaliths of Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh has diverse varieties of megalithic burials. An important megalithic burial type is the anthropomorphic figure found at Tottigutta. Here the menhir resembles the shape of a human being, more particularly a lady (Figures 1, 2). The breasts and the head are very well distinguished, although the details are not carved. At Palem a megalithic burial, a dolmen has two stones resembling the horns of cattle (Figure 3) Apart from surface markers, the buried receptacles also show distinct forms. At Sankavaram in Andhra Pradesh a sarcophagus was found in the form of a ram (male goat) and this specimen is kept at Madras (Chennai) Museum (Figure 4).

4. Megaliths of Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu has produced evidence for anthropomorphs at Mottur (Figure 5) and Udayanattam (Figure 6) in Northern part. Mallasandram near Krishnagiri has interesting type of dolmens with well carved stone slabs.

5. The Megaliths of Kerala

For the purpose of this discussion, the geographical region consisting of the present-day states of Kerala and the southern coastal regions of Karnataka will be treated as one geographical entity, as they indeed are – in terms of physiography, geology, climate etc. For long it had been assumed that this region, of relative geographical isolation – bound as it is on the east by the chain of thickly forested hills of the Western Ghats and the vast Arabian Sea in the west, had no human habitation before the protohistoric phase, during which the availability of iron tools allowed the clearing of forests. Today we know that this assumption is wrong, with some discoveries of stone tools and other evidence of human habitation stretching the history of human occupation of this region back to the Palaeolithic. However, the region abounds with monuments of the protohistoric period – the megaliths, all through its geographical spread.

Most of the megalithic monument types outlined in Module 36 are found in Kerala and southern coastal Karnataka. Menhirs and stone alignments (Figure 7) are found, as also boulder circles, dolmens (Figure 8), cists and dolmenoid cists. Pit burials, urn burials and sarcophagi have all been encountered in this geographical region.

However, some of the megalithic monuments found in the lateritic plateaus of central and northern Kerala and southern coastal Karnataka form a class by themselves in the matter of unique morphological form. Laterites are normally encountered in tropical regions having humid climates, and are formed by sub-aerial decomposition of underlying rocks. Dr. M. S. Krishnan, in his book Geology of India and Burma (1956) describes laterite as “a porous, pitted, clay-like rock with red, yellow, brown, grey and mottled colours depending in some measure on the composition.” Laterite is mainly made up of hydrated oxides of iron, alumina and other elements. The laterite found in the region of our interest, mentioned above, is ferruginous, formed from gneissic rocks and is red to deep brown in colour. One of the remarkable properties of laterite is that it is soft and easily worked when freshly exposed but upon prolonged exposure to the atmosphere, it hardens due to dehydration. This property of laterite was understood by the megalith builders of the region and exploited to produce the unique forms displayed by some of the megalith types found here.

These variant megalithic forms will be discussed below.

5.1The Rock Cut Burial Chamber

Excavations of chambers in the soft laterite rock to hold urns and pots containing remains of dead persons, and other grave goods, are commonly encountered at various locations throughout the geographical region mentioned above – i.e., central and northern Kerala and southern coastal Karnataka. Single chambers are encountered, as also multiple chambers in various arrangements. In general, these chambers are accessed from a sunken court, sometimes provided with steps cut out of the laterite. The chambers are rectangular, circular or even paraboloid in plan and their ceilings may vary from flat to domical or vaulted. The floors of the chambers may contain raised platforms termed benches, the height of which from the floor of the chamber may vary from a few inches to a couple of feet. Some of the chambers have a central pillar of laterite left intact while scooping out the rest of the volume. Others, generally the ones with domical ceilings, have a circular hole at the top communicating with the outside. We shall look at a few examples, located in and around Thrissur in Kerala, to understand the construction of these monuments.

a. Eyyal: The rock cut chamber (Figure 9) at Eyyal is a double chambered structure, with a sunken “court”, from which the two chambers are accessed. The larger chamber, facing east, is 2.1m in width and 1.5m deep. The height to the ceiling of the cave is slightly over a meter in height. Apart from the entry side, a “bench” – a raised platform a few inches in height runs along all the other sides. A mass of laterite is left uncut to form a central pillar to the cave (Figure 10). The roof of the cave is partially caved in at present. The side chamber, facing south, is 1.2m wide and 1.5m deep and has no pillar.

b. Chowannur: The rock cut cave at Chowwannur is a single chambered structure. The east facing chamber is accessed from a sunken court approximately 1m x 1m with steps on the eastern side. The entrance opening, 45cm wide and 51cm tall, is offset and recessed from the outer face by 10cm (Figure 11). The chamber itself, which is a slightly elongated circle around 2.4m wide and 2.26m deep has two raised benches a few inches high on the northern and southern sides. On the floor in the west are 5 circlular blocks which might have been vessel stands. The roof is domical and 1m high at the highest point.

c. Kakkad: The rock cut chamber at Kakkad is a very elegantly conceived structure. The east facing chamber has a narrow sunken court measuring 78cm x 91cm in plan and with 3 high steps leading down to the floor of the court (Figure 12), from where an opening roughly 60cm wide and 40cm tall leads to the circular chamber 2.5m in diameter. The floor of the chamber is further depressed from the level of the court. On the southern side of the cave is a tall bench forming a sector along the curve in plan. It is roughly 2.3m long, 90cm deep and 60cm high, chiselled tastefully out of the rock and with carved niches below (Figure 13). There is a circular block of laterite on the floor raised a couple of inches, which might have served as a vessel stand. The domical ceiling is 1.8m high at the highest and a circular hole 68cm in diameter connects the chamber with the outside at the apex of the domical ceiling. Two slender rock cut pilasters flank the entrance opening on either side, tapering gracefully and merging with the ceiling towards the top close to the circular opening (Figure 14). This cave is one of the most elegant rock-cut chambers in the state.

d. Kattakambal: This is a four chambered rock cut burial cave (Figure 15). Access is from a large court 1.3m x 1.8m in plan, sunken by about 90cm down from the surrounding ground. Accessed by steep steps, there are openings to two east facing chambers in the side of the court opposite the steps. The other two sides, facing north and south, lead to two other chambers. The openings are approximately 50cm x 50cm in size. All the chambers have a low bench all along one side. All the chambers have a uniform height of 98cm.

e.Kandanasserry: This is another single chambered rock cut burial. The east of south-east facing chamber is accessed from a sunken court 1.8m long and 1.1m wide (Figure 16). The opening from the court to the chamber is 55cm wide and 51cm tall, and offset and recessed by 10cm as at Chowannur. The chamber is roughly paraboloid in plan, with low benches on the northern, western and southern sides. There is a circular opening 66cm in diameter in the domical ceiling, which is about 1.8m high at the highest (Figure 17).

The above examples convey a general sense of the variety in the design and layout of rock cut burial chambers in the region. Dr. K. Jayasree Nair has brought to light an interesting rock cut burial at Umichipoyil in Kasaragod district of Kerala, where the entrance portal is offset and recessed in the manner of those at Chowannur and Kandanasserry but thrice. She also reports stopper like circular blocks of laterite, apparently used to plug the circular holes in the ceilings of the rock cut chambers.

Iron objects, various kinds of pottery such as urns, jars and even sarcophagi containing earth and ash with fragments of skeletal remains etc. have been found in these rock-cut burial chambers establishing beyond doubt their sepulchral nature, though “blank” excavations without these contents have also been found.

5.2The Kudakkal (Umbrella Stone)

At first glance the mushroom shaped kudakkal (Figure 18) can seem like a far cry from any of the megalithic forms encountered in the subcontinent, but a thorough consideration can reveal it as an adaptation of the form of the dolmen necessitated by the characteristics of the material used – laterite.

Close inspection will reveal that the “stalk” of the mushroom is comprised of four inclined “clinostats” in place of the four vertical slabs called orthostats in dolmens. Each of these clinostats are roughly triangular in plan, curved and tapering towards the top. Four of these clinostats kept together form a circle in plan and on the tapered top of the stalk a massive capstone shaped like a shallow section off a sphere is balanced. A shallow notch is carved in the base of the capstone to accommodate the tops of the clinostats (Figure 19). The diameter of the capstone (roughly 3-4m) invariably exceeds the diameter of the stalk at the base, giving the characteristic appearance of a mushroom or an umbrella to the structure. Figure 20 shows a disturbed kudakkal at Ariyannoor near Thrissur which shows the disturbed clinostats along with the broken capstone. The height to the base of the capstone can vary from 70cm to 1.4m.

Excavations have shown urn burials beneath kudakkals. K. Jayasree Nair has reported variants in the form of the kudakkal in a group of monuments at a place called Varikulam in Kasaragod district of Kerala. The kudakkals of Varikulam have clinostats that do not fit closely to make one solid looking stalk, but seem to have gaps between each other. Some of the kudakkals have laterite blocks arranged in a circle around them, reminiscent of slab circles around dolmens.

5.3 The Topikal (Hat Stone or Hood Stone)

The topikal, variously referred to as hat stone (the literal meaning) or hood stone, is a roughly hemispherically carved block of laterite placed directly on the ground (Figure 21), more or less like the capstone of a kudakkal without the stalk. In several cases, the hat stone is found to be placed directly over a burial. Often, shallow depressions and deeper holes seem to be intentionally made on hat stones (Figure 22), the purpose of which is not clear.

5.4 The Multiple Hood Stone

Other forms, of distinct architectural conception, though less frequently encountered are grouped under the term “multiple hood stones” (Figures 22-26). These consist of several clinostats, varying from 6 (Figure 25) upwards, enclosing an area elliptical in plan. The clinostats slope inwards over the space and do not seem to have held capstones.

These monuments in all probability have not been given the academic attention they deserve.

6. Forms Endemic to Karnataka

Kerala and southern coastal Karnataka represent the most striking case of endemic megalith forms in a given region. Closer examination of existing megalith types and their distribution will reveal that even monuments that share the same name in the classification system will show slight variation in form from region to region. For instance, the stone alignments of Hanamsagar in northern Karnataka (Figure 27) and Nilaskal in southern Karnataka (Figure 28), though both grouped under “stone alignments” show sufficient differences in composition and layout to deserve being grouped under separate sub-categories. Hanamsagar, typifying the stone alignments found in the northern Karnataka and Andhra region, consist of a large number of constituent menhirs which are basically unmodified or minimally altered field boulders sourced from the nearby hils and arranged into a diagonal grid of fairly regular spacing.Nilaskal, again a type site for at least four other similar sites in the south-western part of Karnataka, consist of quarried slabs or natural boulders of elongated cross section that are arranged to frame the rising and setting sun during the shortest and longest days of the year (solstices). The grid pattern is more difficult to discern in the southern Karnataka examples, especially with many stones missing today.

The megaliths of Iralabanda, similar designs also found at Krishnagiri (Figure 29) and many other sites in the Andhra-Tamil Nadu border districts, with slab circles of alternating round-topped and flat-topped slabs arranged concentrically around dolmens, make them a distinctive sub-group from, say, the dolmens of Hire Benakal (Figure 30), the central chambers of both groups being otherwise indistinguishable.

Kumathi in Karnataka has revealed evidence for megaliths in the form of Anthropomorphs (Figure 31).

Figure 31 Anthopomophs from Kumathi, Karnataka (http://karnatakatravel.blogspot.in/2014/03/megalithic-tomb-anthropomorphic-statues.html)

Perhaps it is high time for us to concentrate on the small differences in morphology and examine distribution of the various sub-types among megalithic monuments to better understand their spread and evolution within the subcontinent. The grouping of what are essentially diverse monuments with differences in their conception and/or execution under the same head prevents a full understanding of the megalithic phenomenon.

7. Discussion

The endemic megalith forms of Kerala and southern coastal Karnataka, which form a contiguous geophysical region, are a class by themselves. Though this region contains many of the conventional megalithic forms that are popular over the rest of peninsular India and other pockets of occurrence of megaliths, such as menhirs and stone alignments, boulder circles, cairns, dolmens etc., these endemic forms like the rock cut “cave” burials, kudakkals, topikals, multiple hood stones etc. are not encountered anywhere else. The primary impetus in the evolution of these endemic forms seems to be the attempt by the megalith builders to translate some of the megalithic forms popular elsewhere into the constructional possibilities offered by the locally available material – laterite. This would imply a later date for these endemic forms. However, this hypothesis can be verified only when the chronology of the Indian megaliths can be firmly placed on a foundation with scientific dating of various sites.

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka have produced evidence for anthropomorphs, which are not found frequently in South India.

Kerala and south coastal Karnataka, or even other laterite rich places outside this region, offer examples of other megalith forms executed in laterite – such as boulder circles (Figure 32), cairns (Figure 33) and menhirs (Figure 34), that are easily duplicated in the softer stone. However, it is in all probability an attempt to adapt the dolmen to the properties of the softer construction material that led to the evolution of the kudakkal.

Historians like Susan L. Huntington, as well as several others, have speculated about the possible connections between megalithic monuments and later monumental traditions of the Jains and the Buddhists. The most obvious cases are those of the stupa evolving from the humble cairn and the religious rock cut cave traditions evolving from similar megalithic practices. These hypotheses too can be verified only after a dependable chronology is established.

8.Conclusion

With this module, we wind up the discussions about megaliths in general that was begun in Module 35 and the forms of Indian megaliths that were dwelt upon in Module 36. In this module, we have cast an eye on the unique megalithic forms found in certain geographical regions like Kerala and southern coastal Karnataka and speculated on the possible origins of these endemic forms as adaptations of the megalithic concepts to locally available material.

Web links

• http://www.megalithindia.in/
• http://www.frontline.in/arts-and-culture/heritage/megalithic-wonder/article4265456.ece
• http://www.saigan.com/heritage/swaminathan/sittannavasal/megalith.html
• http://www.tifr.res.in/~archaeo/
• http://archive.archaeology.org/1005/etc/india.html
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MAyJGi_Eg04
• http://www.megalithic.co.uk/

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