30 Iron Age – Society and Economy

Ravi Korisettar and Arjun Rao

epgp books

 

 

 

1. Introduction

 

Iron Age is an indicative, conditional cultural stage of people using iron tools and implements. As a newly adopted material and technology, it gradually became the chief material for their various domestic, hunting, crafting and agricultural activities. Iron Age as a cultural phase in the Indian subcontinent generally developed after Neolithic/Chalcolithic/Bronze Age from the second millennium BCE and it was during this period literate societies emerged across the subcontinent, that marks the emergence of second urbanisation in India. The Iron Age in India can be broadly classified into four regional developments; Northwest, North, Central and South India (see other modules on Iron age). The classification is based not only on the distinct geographical zones, but also on the basis of distinct, culturally advanced stages that these zones experienced when iron technology ushered in each of these regions. The use of iron in the northwest of the subcontinent began in the post-Indus period in Baluchistan and the Indus plains. The use of iron in Indo-Gangea plains began to appear in the late/post Ochre Colour Pottery culture/ Bronze Age. The use of iron in central India appeared in the late and post-Chalcolithic cultural period and in south India it appeared in the Late Neolithic-Chalcolithic phase and post-Neolithic period.

 

2. Objectives

 

In this chapter, we discuss the rise of iron using cultures across the Indian subcontinent. At what cultural stage iron technology appeared in the respective regions and in what way it contributed to the advancement of economy.

 

3. Archaeological and Literary Sources

 

There are two categories of sources for a study of the Iron Age: archaeological and literary. Iron objects, furnaces and slag with associated material remains and their scientific study and dating of widespread archaeological sources help to reconstruct the antiquity and lifeways of the Iron using peoples. At Atranjikhera, a pear shaped fire pit reported from the upper phase of PGW culture, is dated to c.1000 BCE. At Noh and Jodhpura, furnace with side nozzles, but of intermediate shape has been reported. At Pandurajar Dhibi, iron objects are found associated with the iron slag and ash pits identified as iron furnace, C14 dated to 1045+/- 55 BCE. At Lahuradeva, corroded iron nails and other objects C14 dated to 13th-12th century BCE, were found. Naikund, a habitational and megalithic burial site, yielded an iron smelting furnace C14 dated to 690+/- 110, i.e. c. 700 BCE. At Banahalli, three furnaces in a row and another six dispersed across the site were found covered with a thick layer of solidified iron slag, suggesting intensive iron smelting activities. The iron objects of Komaranahalli (Karnataka) have been TL (Thermoluminescence dating) dated to 1100 BCE. Veerapuram megaliths are C14 dated to 1300 BCE. At Kodumanal one large and twelve small furnaces were unearthed, dated to 400 BCE-100 CE. Very interestingly the big furnace is surrounded by 12 small furnaces at regular intervals having a mouth of 30 cm diameter. These examples give us an idea of the antiquity of iron metallurgy in India, clearly heralding the emergence of Iron Age in different regions of the subcontinent.

 

The literary sources are of two categories: Foreign and Indigenous. The Indo-European philology provides early references to iron production in Central Asia and India. The earliest explicit literary evidence of iron by Indians is found in Plutarch’s account “Life” , which mentions Ktesias (5th century BCE) presented two swords of fine quality, made of Indian steel to Artaxerxes Mnemon. In 326 BCE Alexander of Macedonia, after Aornos, he crossed the river Indus and fought the Battle of Hydaspes against Porus, who ruled the region of Punjab and received from him a gift of 100 talents of steel.

 

Though the Rig-Veda is not the treatise on metallurgy, it does refer to three metals. Hiranya (gold), Rajata (silver) and Ayas (?). Some scholars take Ayas as iron, but many of them consider the mentioning of the Ayas in Rig-Veda as contextual. Banerjee in his book The Iron Age in India considers Ayas meaning sharpness or strength. Scholars also suggest that it refers to ductile, malleable, and part of an implement or object of daily use. The Sushruta Samhita, while explaining the surgical procedures, speaks on the simple surgical instruments made of iron and steel.

 

The Pali texts Chullavagga of 5th- 6th century BCE, advise the Buddhist monks to use cheaper containers made of iron. Samyuktanikaya refers to quenching. “The iron plough here that has been heated for the whole day makes a loud hissing sound as soon as it is dipped in water”. Panini’s Ashtadhyayi of 4th -3rd century BCE mentions implements of iron smiths, like Ayoghana (hammer), Kutilika (Hook) etc., and iron plough shares were crafted with the help of these instruments. Kautilya’s Arthasastra of c.4th -3rd century BCE, emphasises on source of income for the state. He mentions of a post of superintendent of mines and superintendent of armoury.

 

Though most of the early literary sources mentioned above are of unsettled date and authorship, we understand that by 4th century BCE the knowledge of mining, smelting and crafting objects out of iron was a regular practice. It is important to note that these indigenous texts were emerging from the Indo-Ganga and Ganga plains, and hence, the scope of these texts is confined to the said region representing iron as a technology and its role in the society’s economy.

 

4. Iron Age Zones in India

 

Archaeologists have identified different zones in the Indian subcontinent, where the evidences of early iron using cultures have flourished. Dilip Chakrabarti (The Early Use of Iron in India), Vibha Tripathi (The Age of Iron in South Asia Legacy and Tradition), Gregory Poshell, D.P Agarwal and others have demarcated six early iron-using centres in the Indian subcontinent. They are as follows.

Figure 1: Iron Age zones of Indian Subcontinent.

 

4.1 Zone A: North-western frontier of the subcontinent with parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan. Representative sites are Moghal Ghundai, Ziwanri, Take deep, Pirak, Gandhara etc.

 

4.2 Zone B: The Painted Grey Ware (PGW) cultures of Indo-Gangetic plain. Representative sites are Jahera, Bhagwanpura, Atranjkhera, Ahhihchhata, Hastinapura, etc.

 

4.3 Zone C: Black and Red Ware an associated ware with NBPW culture of the middle and lower Ganga valley. Representative sites are Kausambi, Rajghat, Raja Nal-Ka Tila, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi, Koldihawa, Malhar, Lahuradeva, etc.

 

4.4 Zone D: Chalcolithic sites of central India. Representative sites are Ahar, Eran, Prakash, Ujjain, Nagda etc.

 

4.5 Zone E: Iron Age habitational and megalithic culture of Vidarbha in eastern Maharashtra.

 

Representative sites are Muharjuhari, Naikund, Junapani, Takalghat-Khapa etc.

 

4.6 Zone F: Iron Age habitational and megalithic burial sites of south India comprising Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. There are about 3000 sites spread across this zone.

 

5. Iron Age Developmental Stages

 

On the basis of the above the Iron Age in the subcontinent can be divided into three phases of development.

 

5.1 Early Iron Age – from the beginning to 7th-6th century BCE: Gandhara and Pirak sites in the northwest, PGW in Indo -Ganga or upper Ganga plains, Chalcolithic Black and Red Ware sites in central India, megalithic sites in Vidarbha and southern India.

 

5.2 Middle Iron Age- 7th-6th BCE to 2nd century BCE: NBPW sites appear in north India, and contemporaneous with the late PGW upper and middle Ganga sites and megalithic sites of the Vidarbha and southern India.

 

5.3 Late Iron Age – 2nd – 1st century BCE to the beginning of early Historical period in northern India.

 

6. Metallurgy

 

In archaeological enquiry, the metallurgical study mainly aims to concentrate on understanding the emergence of technology, developments in iron implements and their functions, i.e. the role of ferrous metal (iron) with the non-ferrous metals like gold, silver and copper in the development and advancement of society and economy, and the ore beneficiation, furnace and crafting technology of a given cultural period.

 

6.1 Early Iron Age:

 

In the early Iron Age, limited use of iron has been documented, except in the Zone E and F. In the other zones the use of iron was accompanied by copper and bronze technology. Typologically and in numbers, the iron objects are less in comparison with copper and bronze implements. At sites like Chittral, Atranjikhera, Hastinapura, Alamgirpur, Pandurajar Dhibi, etc. iron objects designed for household and hunting activities occur in small number.

 

A diverse variety of iron objects are found along with occasional occurrence of objects of copper, bronze and gold from the megalithic burials of Vidarbha and southern India. The evidence is documented from excavations at sites like Kodumanal, Adichanallur, T-Narasipura, Koppa, Banahalli, Tadakanahalli, Brahmagiri, Maski, Tekkalakota, Chikrampura, Mahurjhari, Bhagimohari, Naikund, etc. These objects serve well in hunting, warfare, agriculture, household and ritual activities. The sites in these two zones continued to flourish in the middle and late Iron Age.

 

Iron metallurgy was in early stages of development. However, technology of wrought iron smelted through bloomer was in use. Iron was extracted at low temperatures ranging from 1100°C to 1300°C in the form of spongy bloom. The spongy bloom or sponge iron is nothing but the porous mass of iron and slag. Later, the mass of iron was forged to desired shape by repeatedly heating and hammering at about 800°C – 900°C.

 

6.2 Middle Iron Age

 

The middle Iron Age is contemporaneous with the late PGW, NBPW phase and megalithic culture of Vidarbha and southern India. Quantitative and qualitative improvement of iron objects is seen in the northern sites associated with NBPW at sites such as Jakhera, Atranjikhera, Sringaverapura, Jagnau, Mathura, Sondh, Hastinapura, Allahapur, Sravasti, Ahichchtra, etc. This phase is marked by an increase in agricultural and warfare iron objects. Improved methods of metallurgy and smithy are hallmark of this period, including new technology in steeling and case hardening or carburization. Iron samples from Rajghat of c. 600-400 BCE suggest accidental carburization. Whereas, the iron sickle from Pandurajar Dhibi shows that the sickle was forged at a high temperatures and carburized, tempere, laminated and quenched. Blocks of haematite and limonite as iron ore, and charcoal as the fuel were procured from source areas.

 

6.3 Late Iron Age

 

The middle and late Iron Age witnessed the emergence of chiefdoms and the republican states like Mahajanapadas, the Nanda and Maurya dynasties in North India. The Ashokan edicts are a classical example of the use of iron tools for inscribing texts on the rock surface. By 1st century BCE in zone E and F the transition to Early Historic period is seen in the emergence of chiefdom societies as revealed by a combination of evidence including megaliths, iron warefare and the appearance of Tamil Brahmi script, particularly on megalithic pottery.

 

Taxila has yielded armour grade weapons. Analysis of iron objects from Sisupalgarh has revealed employment of different techniques on each of the five objects. Axe had a higher hardness than that of the spoon. The cutting edges were found to be carburized further to get grater hardness. An axe with shaft hole and other iron objects from Khairadih indicate pure wrought iron with some slag inclusion. The axe is laminated and has no crevices or voids seen in welding. The hole is punched by piercing a hot steel punch. It is an example of the level of technological advancement attained by artisans of the period. High carbon steel is evident from Taxila.

 

6.4 Furnace

 

At the end of the smelting process, it seems that the furnace was invariably broken down. Because, the smelted metal occupies the furnace bottom and to extract it the upper portion of the furnace had to be dismantled. However, from the excavations, the lower portion of the furnace is readable. There were two types of furnaces: bowl furnace, shaft furnace without slag pit and shaft furnace with slag pit.

 

At Basot a 12 feet long, 2 feet broad, 2 feet deep furnace was discovered. Shallow pit of ash associated with iron objects and ash at Pandurajar Dhibi is C14 dated to 1045 +/- 55 BCE to 920 +/- 50 BCE. At Atranjikhera, a pear-shaped fire-pit reported from the upper phase the PGW culture has been reported. At Jodhpura, a furnace with a side hole into which the nozzle or bellows could have been inserted is found. At Naikund, clay brick circular furnace is found. The upper surface bricks are concave in shape and a hole is provided at the bottom of tapping slag and a few bricks were found fused with slag and cinder. At Banahalli, six furnaces were exposed in the excavation. Five of them were single chambered with a tuyre for passing air. To construct these furnaces, a circular or oval pit of about 15 cm was scooped below the working level. Except two furnaces, all were internally plastered with red murram and one furnace is of two interconnected chambers. Two anvils of granite stone were also found near the furnaces.

 

Middle and late Iron Age furnaces are found at Khairadih, three furnaces were exposed from the NBPW layer. They are underground pits having a flat base and the pits were clay lined. Clay mixed with straw and sand was used for making the furnace wall. Bamboo is used as tuyer at the surface level and during smelting slag dropped at lower level. About 30 kg of slag is collected from the furnace. In another trench, a furnace with copper, glass along with the traces of iron is found. Slag, ore, crucible, crushers, hammers with short handles, four legged oblong quern, mica, silica in a solidified form are all found. These evidences help in reconstructing the metallurgical processes during the period. At Balathal, iron smelting furnace of Early Historic period is found.

 

6.5 Ore

 

The ore is mostly blocks of magnetite (Fe3O4), haematite (Fe2O3), and limonite, which contains 72.3% to 70% of iron. We have no concrete evidence so far established in favour of ore beneficiation or mining except a few inferences relating to the proximity of sites and iron ore deposits in the environment. Charcoal was used as fuel.

 

7.  Iron Age Settlement System, Society and Economy.

 

7. 1 Zone A

 

The North Western Frontier Province of the subcontinent, Afghanistan and Kashmir have not yielded enough evidence for early occurrence of iron following the bronze Age. Out knowledge of the early Iron Age in this region limited to cairn burials and the grave furniture from Gandhara Grave Culture sites and from other sites in the neighbourhood such as Moghal Ghundai, Gatti, Basot, etc.

 

In the Swat valley, there are small settlements and associated burials, the Gandhara Grave Culture sites ranging in time from c.1600 BCE- 800 BCE. As seen at sites such as Chitral, Loebanr, Timargarh, Butkara, Katelai, Ghaligai, etc. At Chitral, 12 burials were excavated. They included inhumation, cremation and fractional burial types. The inhumation burials were also of three different types; extended, inflexed and crouched. The grave goods included pots, weapons, tools, jewellery and seal/stamp. copper and iron bangles, gold and copper earrings, semi precious stone finger ring, copper finger rings, semi precious stones, paste and faience beads, iron objects like arrow heads, knife blades, hook, axes, chisel head, tool sharpeners, grinding stones, ceramic opened mouth bowls, handled drinking pots and a copper seal are found. The burial excavations at Timargarha yielded Grey Ware and Red Ware. Iron objects like spoon, dagger, nail, horse bit, etc., bronze objects like wristlet, bronze ear pendant, beads of precious stones, bronze hairpins, terracotta bead, tie disk, bronze needle, ivory hairpins, ivory borer, bronze finger rings are found.

 

Pirak presents one of the important early Iron Age assemblages. Pirak and related sites have flourished in the Bolan valley during three consecutive periods, filling the gap between c. 1800 BCE and the Early Historical period. The first period is post Mature Harappan, with notable terracotta figurines. In the second period there is occurrence of copper, bronze and a small piece of iron artefacts. The third period c.1000-800 BCE produced larger quantity of iron and a continuation of all the elements of the earlier periods. Barley, rice and sorghum were part of the subsistence.

 

Moghul Ghundai is largely a burial site of cairns. Sixty out of 100 burials were excavated and they revealed ceramics, terracotta figurines and metal objects. Ten arrow heads, 1 spearhead, bronze jar on a tripod, 3 bronze ‘cat balls’, 3 bronze rings and a silver ring have been found. At Zangian 69 out of 490 cairns were opened. Two objects of iron, large sword blade and weapon with bronze fastening at the hilt and fragments of both iron and copper were found. Two horse burials were also found. Settlement and burial evidence are revealed through excavation in the sites like Basot and Damba Koh. At Basot about 3000 cairn burials and 60 house remains are reported. A furnace of 12 feet long, 2 feet broad, 2, feet deep was discovered. At Damba Koh, 42 out of 2000 cairns were opened yielding ceramics of spouted beaker, green glazed potsherds pottery spinning whorls, beads of stone, glass, beads and terracotta, bronze platter, iron objects like javelin- heads and thin iron vessel, Parthian copper coin. Houses on square plan, with several rooms measuring 15- 36 feet with adjacent smaller rooms are also reported, which are of the cairn burials period.

 

In the Kashmir valley, early evidence of iron in multi cultural sites is found contemporary with the above mentioned sites, for example, at Gufkral three un-identified iron artefacts, plus two needles and one nail were reported from the megalithic phase dated to c. 1550–1300 BCE. At Semthan an arrowhead and a few slag pieces were found along with the NBPW ceramics dating to c. 700–500 BCE. Two artefacts (a nail and an arrowhead) were reported from the Early Historic level of Burzahom (c. 1st century – 5th century CE).

 

7.2. Zone B:

 

The cultural phase between Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) and the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) is represented by the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture in the Indo-Ganga plains. There are about 700 Painted Grey Ware sites in the Indo-Ganga plains. Iron bearing levels have been found at Alamgirpur, Allahapur, Atranjikhera, Hastinapura, Mathura, Ropar, Sravasti, Noh, Kampil, Jahera, Bhagwanpura, Ahhihchhatra, etc. flourished between c.800-400 BCE (C14 dates for this level). The nomenclature for the cultural phase is after the emergence of a very distinctive PGW ceramic industry. It is made of fine grained and well levigated clay, grey in colour, fired under reducing conditions in the kiln. Its distinctive shapes are the dish, bowl, lota like vase etc. the pots are often painted in black colour with designs of dots and dashes, vertical, oblique and criss-cross lines, concentric circles and semi circles, a chain of spirals, sigmas, savastikas, etc.

 

The settlement system during this period included domestic and defensive structures. The domestic structures are predominantly of shelters and the defence is mainly represented through moats and mud bund, probably to act against the unwelcome people or wild animals or river water. A line of development is evident in the construction of residence ranging from pit dwellings to huts of wattle and daub types and to mud brick built houses. At Abhaipur, people lived in circular huts of wattle and daub and mud -wall houses with mud plastered floors. A few underground storage pits were also found. At Hatt, evidence of dwelling pits was found in PGW level. The pits were cut into the natural soil, having vertical sides. The interiors are plastered with ochre and floored with rammed clay. Steps were also noticed inside the pits. These dwelling pits were surrounded by a “V’ shaped moat, which acted as a defence wall. At Ahichchhatra huts and mud-brick houses were evident. A broken burnt brick was also reported in this phase. At Alamgirpur mud reed houses were made in this period which had thatched roofs. At Atranjikhera houses were made of mud and reed, post holes indicates the presence of huts, whose floors were made of yellowish rammed earth. The Madina excavations revealed huts situated in proximity to each other and hearths in the open space between them. Potters’ clay levigation pits were also found near some huts. At Bhagwanpura, a complex consisting of 13 rooms of rammed mud walled house was exposed. The structure oriented north-south; 5 rooms in the western side and 7 rooms on the eastern side ranging in measurements from 1.60 x 1.60 m. to 3.35 x 4.20 m.

 

Wheat and rice seem to be the important crops. Apart from wheat and rice, ragi, sawan, kodon are reported from Hulaskhera. Moong, urad, massor, moth, kulthi, khesari, wild oat, tulsi and bathua have been reported from Siyapur. These food grains indicate an agricultural system of both Rabi and Kharif cultivation. Alamgirpur provides very good faunal evidence during the PGW period. It suggests that people depended mainly on cattle and buffalo and the lesser role of sheep, goat and domestic pigs. Large bovin, gaur, nilgai, antelopes, deer, wild pigs, fox, panther, hyena and peafowl were hunted.

 

The iron objects of PGW can be broadly classified into four categories: household objects, tools for agriculture, other craft tools and warfare and hunting weapons. Nails, pins, hooks, needles, knives, pair of tongs, sickle, hoe, chisels, shaft, axes, clamps, borers, needles, bangles, borers, clamps, arrowheads, spearheads etc are evident. Along with iron, other metal and non metal objects were also used for manufacturing tools and implements. Toilet objects included the antimony rod, nail parer, antimony-rod-cum nail parer and toothpick, etc. Copper arrow heads are found at Hastinapura and Allahpur. Copper ornaments, rings and bangles from different sites, and a dish of 17 cm. diameter from Atranjikhera were found. At Abhaipur bone tool making workshop was found, where both finished and unfinished bone tools and beads along with the equipments were found. PGW people seem to be aware of glass technology. At Hastinapura two glass bangles, one is of brown and the other black were recovered from PGW level. Glass beads were also reported from Allahpur and Alamgirpur.

 

7.3 Zone C:

 

This zone is best represented by Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) culture, flourished across the middle and lower Ganga plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The NBPW evidence was also found scattered across, up to Taxila in the west to Amravati and Dharanikota in the south. This zone witnessed the emergence of urban Iron Age culture of the Indian subcontinent. NBPW emerged during the late and post PGW Phase in the middle Ganga valley. The C14 determination of associated materials from the NBPW layers indicate a time span from c. 600 – 100 BCE. The associated ware of NBP are Black Slipped Ware, Plain Grey Ware, Black and Red Ware, Plain Grey Ware and PGW.

 

The early NBPW sites are found to be located in the low lying area whereas the later sites have been found on the river banks and elevated areas. Makkan Lal observes that the sites on the banks of the Ganga are much bigger in size and more closely spaced than on the tributaries. At Abhaipur a burnt brick wattle and daub structure, two successive floors and burnt brick wall in which brick dimension of 32.5 x 22 x 15.5 x 8 cm are used. At Bhardwaj Ashram lumps of clay with seed impression are found as an indication of their huts. At Ahichchatra evidence of baked brick, multiple oven, pestle and querns suggest the construction of well defined houses. At Dadupur they erected circular or oval huts with wall made of reed and plastered with clay. At Mathura a mud-brick platform is found to be constructed in this period. Mud floors, ring wells, soak jars provided an indication of structural activities. At Hastinapura three mud walls suggest the existence of two rooms, one of which was at least 4.56 x 4.56 m size. Mud walls with use of rice husk to reinter it with plaster were also observed.

 

Hearth and oven of various types are found on the house floors. The clay hearths are of single mouthed type. Close and open mouthed hearths are also common. Multiple ovens on mud floor at Allahapur, oven at Ahichchhatra, series of hearth at Purana Quila and a peculiar type of hearth with one mouth and three opening at Atranjikhera are the important evidences throwing light on the kitchen setup. It is found that houses had paved baths and from where dirty water discharged into main drain or soak pit; such examples come from Hastinapura, Mathura and Purana Quila. In the late cultural phase, terracotta ring wells are found, placed by digging into the natural soil. To dispose domestic waste, pit latrines, wedge shaped bricks as drain wells, were also provided. At Hastinapura, two ring wells were excavated. One is of a lined structure of five courses formed out of 299 wedge shaped brinks. Another ring well excavated is of 7 m deep, formed of 47 rings.

 

The tools and implements like that of PGW phase were of both metal and non metal. Iron objects like arrow heads, spearhead, sickle shape, plough share, hoe, clumps, chisel rings, chipper, axes, knives, barbed and socket arrow heads, chisel, blades, and a bracelet like objects, leaf-shaped spear head, nails, a hook and socket of a spade etc. suggesting agricultural, hunting, structure construction, crafting and warfare utilities. The copper objects were mainly ornaments:

 

like copper pots, pans, pins, needles, bracelet, pendants, ring blades, beads, bangles, ring, etc. There are a quite number of furnaces, kiln and oven suggesting industrial activities. Bone points, arrow heads, awls, pins, comb-teeth, awls pins, arrow heads with short points etc are reported. Stone objects like sling balls, weight, mullers, quarrels, Stone pestles etc., have been reported.

 

The beginning of trade through currency system and the emergence of complex socio-economic and political system to control various aspects of life is evident from the early NBPW cultural phase. The formation of Janapadas and sixteen Mahajanapadas resulted in the introduction of currency of their own. A variety of puch marked coins were in circulation by c. 6th century CE. The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, Digha Nikaya and Vyakhyaprajnapti Sutra of Jaina and Panini’s Ashtadhyayi give a vivid description of the spread of tribal republics or tribal chiefdoms from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga to the eastern part to the Godavari in the south. But the major concentration of Janapadas and Mahajanapadas was in the Ganga plains. Archaeologically, the extent of these tribal chiefdoms is validated through numismatic evidence in the excavations at Bhita, Butesvara, Hastinapura, Purana Qila, Hulaskhera, Prahladpura, Sringaverapura, Mathura and others resulted in yielding silver and copper punch marked coins. Scholars have identified and classified the coins of various Mahajanapadas collected from excavations and explorations. In the Gandhara region, unfinished blanks circulated as currency along with bent bar type coins. At Narhan a hoard of about 50 pieces including 7 unmarked silver blanks of standard weight along with those bearing a bold punched symbol are found in miniature pot. These evidences can be considered as a transition from metal to coinage.

 

7.4 Zone D and E:

 

This zone covers the south-eastern Thar Desert, Aravalli range and northern Deccan of the modern states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, eastern Rajasthan and Maharashtra. Nagada, Eran, Ahar, Khapa, Mahurjhari, Raipur, Takalghat, Kaundinyapur, Bhagimohari, Naikund, etc., are the important and well excavated sites which have yielded a number of early Iron Age objects. These sites have revealed the continuity of settlements from Chalcolithic- Early Historic through Iron Age megalithic.

 

The Iron Age sites in these zones (also of zone F) can be broadly classified into burial site, habitation site and burial cum habitation sites. The burials are on the foothills or barren undulating landscapes, so that it is convenient for burial construction. Habitation sites are dispersed over the fertile alluvial zone and in close proximity to the rivers or major tributaries for agro-pastoral priorities. The unbalanced ratio between burial and habitation sites have led to understanding that the Iron Age people of Vidarbha were pastoral, agro-pastoral and hunter gatherer nomads and semi nomads. But on the other hand, the excavation at settlement sites like Takalghat, Naikund, Bhagimohari, Mahurjhari, Adam, etc., have indicated the settlement stability. The sites have appeared in arable and pasture land. The site size ranges from 1-10 ha. They have yielded evidence of structural activity of the period. The ground plans of the residence are circular, round and rectangular. Traces of post-holes suggest huts of wood and wattle- daub. Houses were mainly constructed using wood, bamboo and different parts of plants, and probably had thatched roofs. Sometimes the wall plasters contained rice husks, grass and vegetation remains. They were kneaded together and were given a thin coating on both sides of the bamboo or the wooden screen wall. The floors were treated with chips of stones, lime and probably of cow dung.

 

The ceramics are of Black and Red Ware, Black on Red Painted Ware, Micaceous and Coarse Red Ware in the form of bowls, cooking and storing pots and jars. The tool kit can be broadly classified into weapons, tools to craft, implements for agriculture and household and associated artefacts of necessity like horse stirrups and the tongues of bells. The weapons of offence and defence included spears, daggers, swords, battle axes (Parasu), knives, blades, tridents, etc. The repository of tools like varieties of chisels, axes, nail parers, adzes, etc., suggest their skill in wood, leather and probably bamboo and cane working. Some adzes were probably used for splitting bamboo or cane and not as a pressure tool for cutting leather. Most adzes are flat on both edges and do not suggest hafting of a handle at one end as seen in case of chisels or modern day cobbler adzes. Agricultural implements, like hoes, ploughshare, sickles, and digging equipment, along with a variety of grains and pulses found suggest that agriculture also formed an important occupation. Household objects included frying pans, lamps, saddles, querns, pestles and copper bowls, lids, lota etc. Along with iron copper objects like bell, horse ornaments, animal figurines, and bronze vessels are also found.

 

In the Vidarbha region, about 100 large burial sites and few habitation sites are reported. Burials are the testimonial of the customs and socio-economic dynamics of the culture. The basic and chief types of burials are the stone circles filled with cairns. Dolmens and menhirs are considerably small in numbers. They are primary, secondary and multiple burials in nature (for detailed see the module on Types of Megaliths) . The burials are usually located on unproductive barren land, hill slopes and rocky surfaces. The ceramics, terracotta, iron and other metal objects of weapons, ornaments, art, horse ornaments, etc., are the usual grave goods. The association of the horse with megalithic people is very significant. The elaborate horse ornaments and partial skeletal remains in some of the burials suggest their importance in the cultural system. Apart from the iron objects and ceramic vessels they have were also skilled in crafting beads in various materials like semiprecious stones, ceramics, shell and ornaments of gold.

 

The archeobotonical and archaeozological remains from the excavations suggest the subsistence developments from semi nomadic economy to sedentary economy from early to later Iron Age. The economy is mainly mixed with agriculture, animal husbandry, crafts specialisation, hunting gathering and supported by pastrolism. Barley, rice, wheat, jobs tears, black gram, lentil, hyacinth bean, common pea, horsegram, grass pea, pigeon pea, black gram/green gram, Indian jujube, Indeterminate type, goosefoot, cotton were cultivated. They possibly practiced double cropping. Horse, water buffalo, sheep, pig, dog, goat and cattle were domesticated and probably they were all consumed. The wild gaur, nilgai, wild goat/sheep, sambar, chital, hog deer, barking deer, mouse deer, four horned antelope, wolf, leopard, black buck, wild pig, hare, mongoose, etc. are wild animal skeletal remains found during the excavations.

 

7.5 Zone F:

 

This zone is mainly covers the lower Deccan (covering the present states of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and up to the Kaveri delta) and further regions of Kerala and southern Tamil Nadu, a semi arid region receiving low seasonal rainfall of 400-800 mm per year. The early Iron Age of this zone has large representation of megalithic burial complex sites (about 3000 sites) with a few habitation sites in 30:1 ratio. This imbalance is mainly because of research emphasis on the burial sites than on habitation sites.

 

There is a regional variation in the appearance of sites with varied geography, geology, river and ecosystem. Especially in the Karnataka part of the middle Krishna, lower Bhima, upper Tungabhadra, upper Hagari, traversed by Archaean granite gneiss, Deccan trap, quartzite, sandstone, limestone and hilly tracts interspersed with arable and pastoral land. Sites are found on terrace, slope and foot of residual hills, off streams, on streams, rolling plain and generally away from the river banks. For example, in Shorapur Doab, the sites are close to streams; in Raichur Doab the sites are found both on streams and away; in the upper Tungabhadra basin the sites are found along the rivers. In Hagari basin, the sites are located on the hill terrace and slopes. On the contrary, the sites in the Godavri basin of Telangana and the sites in middle and lower Kaveri basin of Tamil Nadu are associated with the dranage network.

 

The megalithic burials are the dominant cultural features of the south Indian Iron Age. The size of the grave yards differs from less than 10 to 1500 burials at individual sites. Burials were erected on hill terraces or stony waste land. Maski, Tekkalakota, Koppa, Aihole, Hirebenkal are some of the examples. Tow or more types occur at a single site, for example menhirs, urn burials, cairn and stone cist burials at Maski. Stone cist burials, menhirs and dolmens occur together at Koppa.

 

At Kurugodu circular stone houses and mud platforms are identified associated with Black and Red Ware and a few iron objects. The circular stone houses are of 5.5m in diameter. The mud floors are of 3.5m to 2.20m. The floor is paved with fragments of Red Ware sherds and small stone chips. The Kodumanal excavations resulted in exposing eight floors, of which five belong to the megalithic period. They are square/rectangular gravel paved floors with lime plaster.

 

The shelters were of perishable materials like wooden posts, grassy roof and use of clay has resulted in flimsy deposits. Megalithic sites associated with the hilly terrain reveal steps taken for storage of water, as cn be observed at sites like Maski, Hirebenkal, Bukkasagara, Ramapuram, Kadabakele, Sanganakallu etc. earthen and relic boulder embankments are also found intended to stop soil erosion or erosion control walls as at Piklihal, Kurugodu, Chinnur, Chagtur and Chinnamurur.

 

The ceramics of Red Ware, Red Slipped Ware, and Black Slipped Ware, Black and Red Ware are the common types both from their habitation and burials. Ring stands, pot bellied vases, spheroid shaped storage jars, globular jars, dish on stand, funnel shaped bowls, saucer, vessels, lotas, dishes, bowls, carinated vases, etc. are common forms. Post firing graffiti are evident on the Iron Age ceramics. The ceramics bearing graffiti from ten megaliths of Kodumanal has provided contextual evidence of their use. K Rajan attributes the different symbols with different individuals or kin/clan groups. Ten out of 13 pots encircling a six legged zoomorphic sarcophagus of Kudatini bear various graffiti marks. Some of the marks of Kudatini are comparable with that of Jadigenahalli, T-Narasipur, Sanur, Feroke and Savandurga. G.R Hunt and Yazdani have compiled about 175 distinct graffiti marks. B.B. Lal and Yazdani opines that the graffiti’s are the Indicators of profession, and they have further linked the Megalithic graffiti marks with Etruscan, Cretan, Aegean, Egyptian and Libyan scripts, and signs of Harappan seals and ceramics.

 

The iron artefacts include weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, arrows, etc. agricultural implements like ploughshare, sickle, axe, hoes, chisel, etc. and domestic implements like bill hooks, nails, spade, bell, saucer lamps, tripod stands, horse stirrups, bits, etc. are found from the habitation and burial sites. From the habitation site of Hallur, one copper rod fragment and one gold bead were found. From Pochampad grave pit, along with iron implements, a copper hilted iron dagger was found. From the urn burials of Adichanallur bronze artefacts including ornamental vase stands, bowl lids, bowls, jars, cups, sieves, strainers, plaques, bangles, necklaces, ear ornaments and diadems are recovered.

 

The archaeobotonical and archaeozoological evidences are chiefly represented from the burials as grave furniture. Horse gram, green gram, ragi with the agricultural implements like axes, sickles, bill hooks and hoes are recovered from Paiyampalli. Kodo millet, common pea, hyacinth bean, Indian jujube, black gram, rice, horse gram from Veerapuram. Paddy husk and Rice from Hallur, Jadigenahalli, Koppa and Fraserpet. Barley from Ramapuram, Savandurga and Veerapuram. Rice, kodo millet horse gram, green gram, black gram, hyacinth bean, Indian jujube from Hallur etc. The skeletal remains of buffalo, sheep, goat, cattle, swine, dog and horse are found in excavations. Wild animals like bison, pig, guar, sambar, chital, porcupine, black buck, fowl, hyena, elephant and aquatic animals like fish and tortoise are commonly found at these sites.

 

Though no textile as clothing evidence is found, but there are circumstantial evidences in favour of cotton as a crop and textile use. Allchin observed textile impression of cotton on a number of early Iron Age potsherds in southern Karnataka. A cloth-polisher has been identified from T-Narasipur. Traces of cloth are evident from Vellur, Adichanallur and Nilgiri region. Terracotta figurines of bullock, buffalo, horse, and pig from the megaliths of Nilgiri and Malabar area are reported. Rock art is found in the vicinity of Iron Age sites like Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Venkatapur, Anegondi, Chikrampur, Kallur, Piklihal, Balchakra, Badami, Tawargeri, Kalhalli, Edakkal etc. They are of both Human beings and animals depictions.

 

8. Conclusion

 

Zone A, has so far provided very early evidence of iron objects mainly from the cairn burials. Some archaeologists have attributed the cultural materials to immigrants from central Asia. There is also evidence of copper, bronze and gold used for ornaments and utensils where as iron was limited to hunting and domestic use.

 

In zone B and C the iron implements become an essential part of the society driven by economy. The PGW phase after the copper using OCP cultures in the Indo-Ganga valley began to adopt iron for a variety of tools and implements that facilitated hunting, crafting, construction and agriculture.

 

The NBPW phase witnessed geographical expansion in iron technology from the upper to middle and lower Ganga plains with further advancement in the domestic structures. Though it appears that in the NBW phase the use of metals was continuation from the previous PGW phase there is increasing emphasis on warfare. The economy here is shifting from the barter system to currency system. The people are now literate. Obviously the earliest evidence of writing is seen in the edicts of Ashoka Maurya.

 

There are different theories in respect to the contribution of iron technology in the social and economic change in the first millennium BCE urbanization. D.D. Kosambi, Romila Thapar and other scholars opine that the supreme leader is one who holds the right of ownership of land and the resources in it. One who possesses it invariably holds the supreme authority over the people and he decides the developmental activities which has resulted in the establishment of urban system through regulating the occupations, resources, forest clearance and bringing new land under agriculture. To do so, iron has played an important role in all the above operations. Kosambi justifies this perspective by opining that the conflict between Magadha and Kosala was due to trade and commerce; who were very close to the iron and copper mine.

 

Gordon Childe, while analysing the emergence of urbanisation, observes that the technological development has led to the surplus production and this was responsible for all the economic and social variations leading towards the emergence of cities and urban centres. The surplus has led to a synthesis of factors like social changes, technological advancement and the authority needed.

 

A Ghosh, Makkhan Lal , D.K. Chakrabarti and other researchers, argue that the surplus production is due to the political authority. An agrarian group may not produce a surplus out of their own needs. It is the authority which can compel them to do so. Keeping their part of share and distribute the surplus to the other group of professionals. Likewise wherever the use of iron for increasing production was controlled through an authority, there was the growth of urbanism. The political authority has played a major role in the urbanisation process. For example, second urbanisation began to happen during the NBPW phase though the iron as an advanced technology had developed during the PGW. George Erdosy points out the importance of political authority in the urbanisation. He observes that the maximum sites of PGW and NBPW are on river banks and they were mostly agricultural. But, sites in a transition zone like Kausambi, Jakhera became centres. Suggesting the agricultural colonisation and the land required for sustaining such site was available around the river banks. Where iron ploughshare to till this soil is not highly essential. Certain social, economic and political factors which were operating for many centuries culminated to give rise to the need of surplus and its circulation. Though the above evidence helps in reconstructing the developments, causes and its results, it seems to be fallen behind in explaining how practically they might have operated within the system.

 

In Zones D, E and F courses towards urbanisation were relatively slow. Material culture remains along with the botanical and zoological remains in the zone E and F suggests the presence of occupational groups including blacksmith, coppersmith, goldsmith, carpenters, horse rearing, basket and bamboo work, stone working, lapidary, leather working, warfare and protection along with hunting.

 

Many scholars have tried to understand the role of megalithic culture in the development of urbanism. K Rajan has traced the development and continuity of Iron Age into the Early Historic period. Excavations at Brahmagiri, Maski, T-Narasipura, Watgal etc., have provided evidence for the Early Historic phase, during which time the existence of a stratified society has been inferred. This period also witnessed the expansion of Maryan rule in this region, as evidence by the presence of minor rock edicts of Ashoka.

you can view video on Iron Age – Society and Economy

Web links

 

  • www.archive.archaeology.org/1005/etc/india
  • www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/middx/vol1/pp50-64
  • www.bu.edu/anep/Ir.html
  • www.frontline.in/arts-and-culture/heritage/megalithic-wonder/article4265456.ece
  • www.indianetzone.com/55/iron_age_india.htm
  • www.indianetzone.com/55/painted_gray_ware.htm  www.kathleenmorrisonlab.com/ehltc/
  • www.youtube.com/watch?v=VP1rW0l0cLs
  • www.researchgate.net/publication/268210042_Architecture_of_Karnataka_the_Antiquity_and_the_Tra nsformation_%28From_Tekkalakota_to_Pattadkal%29
  • www.researchgate.net/publication/263697017_Iron_Age_in_the_Peninsular_and_Southern_India

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