21 Protohistory of India and Pakistan III:Indus Crafts and Arts

V.N. Prabhakar

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2600 – 1900 BCE) is well known for the standardisation it had

1.

Introduction 

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2600 – 1900 BCE) is well known for the standardisation it had achieved during its 700 year period.  The surplus in food production during the Neolithic period enabled the creation and, later support of craftsmen who indulged in manufacturing various kinds of objects, both utilitarian as well as adornment. The development of craft activities can be traced back to the Neolithic period, the earliest evidence of which comes from Mehrgarh.  The Neolithic people of Mehrgarh traded with far off regions for exotic materials like turquoise, lapis lazuli, steatite, special categories of shells, etc.  Undoubtedly, these materials were traded for their rarity in local sources and therefore valued high. The research data accumulated for over one hundred years have provided excellent evidence to understand the procurement and

processing of raw materials, and distribution of finished products. There is evidence for systematic exploitation of raw materials from near as well as distant sources. Randall Law has systematically documented in detail on the transformation of strategies in raw material acquisition from the Early Harappan phase to Mature Harappan phase. The raw materials procured were of diverse nature, ranging from metals like copper, lead, silver, gold to semi -precious stones like turquoise, vesuvianite, lapis lazuli, amazonite, agate-carnelian, jasper, bloodstone, quartz, amethyst, just to name a few. The scientific investigations available today are helpful in identifying these different raw material sources through understanding the chemical composition of finished artefacts and remains of raw materials from a proper stratigraphic context and comparing them with the available raw material sources currently exploited and from those which were exploited in the past and abandoned. The procurement of raw materials required a good understanding of the local geology and properties of materials and also through contacts with the various tribes and clans populated near these sources. Once the raw material sources were identified and their values understood, the Harappans adopted various strategies to maintain a continuous flow. The best example is a host of Harappan sites located in the Badakshan region of modern Afghanistan, on the banks of River Oxus, and very close to the precious lapis lazuli sources. Similarly, a host of Harappan/Sorath Harappan sites in Gujarat near the agate-carnelian raw material sources indicate the dominance of Harappans in exploiting them. Once the raw materials were procured, they were fashioned into various items of utilitarian and ornamental purpose. The expertise in finishing these raw materials into artefacts of artistic specimen can be inferred from the numerous categories of objects that have come down to us. The finishing of these artefacts also required a particular level of skill which was developed over a period of time, the remnants of which can be seen in the preceding periods of Mature Harappa phase. The stratigraphic correlation to this development of skill in craft activities could be seen best at the site of Harappa where a continuous occupation starting from around 3700 BCE onwards has been documented. Further, based on the analysis of excavated sites, it has been further inferred that standardisation in craft production combined with craft specialisation could have led to socio-economic stratification through a network of controlled production. Mark Kenoyer observes that a complex socio-economic process could have played in the entire sequence of acquisition, production and distribution of products. The location of specific craft activities in a urban site can also indicate on the nature of segregation which may further implies on certain factors leading to their segregation. For example, the pottery kilns were normally located outside the habitation so that the fumes generated during firing may not affect the population. This may be true in the case of metallurgical processes of smelting and melting, which produces lots of heat and fumes, and thus needs to be segregated from the populous localities of a city. Thus, several factors as observed in the excavation of Harappan sites can tell a great deal of story behind the socio-economic factors of third millennium BCE. These have also been supported by various ethnographic models on different craft activities.

The craft activities of the Harappans can be gleaned from the various categories of artefacts produced by them. Based on the technology involved in the manufacture and nature of raw material the craft activities have been summarised as follows:

• Crafts production with simple technology from the locally available raw materials. Examples in this regard are woodworking, basket making, simple weaving, terracotta pottery production, and house building;
• Crafts production with relatively simple technology on the imported raw materials, e.g., chipped stone tool-making and stone-shaping for domestic purposes;
• Crafts production using complex technology on the locally available aterials, e.g., stoneware bangle production, elaborate painted and decorated pottery production, weaving and carpet making, inlaid woodwork production and construction of decorative architecture; and
• Crafts production using complex technology on the imported raw materials, e.g., agate-carnelian bead manufacture, seal production, copper / bronze metallurgy, stone carving, precious metalworking, shell working and faience manufacture.

2.   Objectives

In this module, we shall learn about the various craft activities of the Harappans and understand the technology behind them to a certain extent. We will also try to find out examples of craftmanship of different materials from Harappan sites found from the excavations.

2.1. Ceramics

The Indus Valley Civilization is characterised by a remarkable sophistication in the production of pottery consisting of red coloured surface often painted with various motifs and designs. The painted pottery of the Indus Civilization constituted <10% while the remaining ones were unpainted and used for most mundane and day to day use. The painted ceramics was an important craft activity and the entire length and breadth of this civilization is marked by the presence of this type of pottery. Excavated sites like Harappa, Mohenjo Daro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Banawali, Rakhigarhi have yielded best examples of the painted pottery. The pottery was manufactured in a variety of techniques that involved both wheel turned and partly wheel turned and finished by hand. It has been observed through ethnographic parallels that large storage jars were partly wheelmade and finished by hand because of its massive size. Some of the pottery specimen like slender jars and large goblets were manufactured using a coiling technique. The coils of fine clay were prepared and placed one above the other, creating a rough form and shape and then the exterior surface smoothened and finished on a wheel using burnishing tools like leather, smooth pebbles, and also long chert blades. Often, the exterior surface was finished smoothly, while the interior of the pottery preserved the remains of coiling of clay placed one above the other.

While the pottery is in leather hard condition, burnishing and polishing of the surface takes place and then application of a chosen shade of red ochre (iron oxide), a naturally occurring mineral is applied, which is readily absorbed by the pottery surface. This forms the base of the pottery, over which a different ochre shade (mixture of dark red-brown iron oxide and black manganese) is used to create the black coloured designs consisting of intricate patterns of loops, hatches, criss-cross patterns, intersecting circles, fish-scale patters and faunal representations of the contemporary environment. The slip applied over the pottery during leather hard condition or slightly dried condition turns bright red, the typical characteristic colour of Indus Civilization pottery, upon heating in a kiln. The black coloured decorations applied over this slip fuses well into the base slip of the pottery and creates a distinct pattern.

Several distinct pottery shapes were manufactured based on the need, for utilitarian as well as decorative purposes. The broad shapes of pottery are bowls, dishes, plates, storage jars, ‘S’ shaped jars, perforated jars, dishes-on-stand, cooking pots, beakers, goblets, miniature vessels and others.

The elaborately painted pottery of Harappan Civilization indicates also the economic status of the owner of the ceramics as it takes longer time and labour to arrive at the finished product. The plain and undecorated pottery is easier to manufacture and also requires lesser time when compared to painted pottery. Thus, the ceramics can also be used to understand the socio-economic factors of a particular household, and extended to a set of households, can reflect the status of society.

The study of pottery forms from various Harappan sites through time and space also indicates an internal evolution, even though the basic forms and shapes continue. Thus, it has been observed from the terminal phase of Harappa culture at Harappa, goblets obtain a distinct form, called as ‘pointed base goblets’. Therefore, the ceramic types can be also used to date a phase in the overall Harappa culture.

The ceramics also found their way as burial offerings. Often, the number of pottery forms and elaboration in decorative motifs indicated the social status of the individual buried. The burial pottery consisted of both elaborately painted ones as well as unpainted. The pottery shapes from the burials also tallied largely with those from the habitation areas from within the city/town limits.

Apart from the distinct Black-on-Red variety of ceramics produced by the Harappans, the other important pottery assemblage of this period consist of Reserved Slip Ware (predominantly in Gujarat sites), Black Slipped jars, the larger ones reaching up to 1.5 m in height, with a distinct black slip all over the body (mostly for transporting goods), Black and Red Ware (in Gujarat), perforated jars (most probably used as strainers and used in association with a bigger vessel)

The Harappans were also masters of pyrotechnology and are known to have made the best of use of controlled fire to create specific coloured patterns and glaze on the pottery surface. The most common type of kiln found in the Indus Valley sites is the updraft variety. The most elaborate and well preserved one has been recently at Khirsara (Gujarat). The updraft kiln of the Mature Harappan period consist of a circular pit, one end emanating in the form of a huge channel to add fuel into the underground chamber, which is topped by a platform consisting of a series of fire vents, that heated the pottery assemblage stacked over it. The circular pit is properly lined with either brick or stone as per the local availability, and after stacking the required quantity of pottery over the platform, it is sealed with a semi-circular domical structure with provisions of vents for escape of unwanted hot air. Once charged with fuel in the form of wooden logs through the tunnel on one end of the pit, the heat generated gradually reaches the semi-circular chamber through the vents provided on the platform. The vents on the platform were partly covered by broken potsherds so that heat does not directly reach the pottery, which could have damaged and broken them due to excessive heat. The vent provided at the top or sides of the semi-circular dome is used to remove excessive heat and also to monitor the temperature reached inside the chamber. The temperature can be guaged by the colour of the fumes coming out of this vent. The initial fume coming out of these vent will be smoky, then turns into red, orange, bright orange and once the temperature reaches well above 700 – 8000 C, the colour becomes bluish and transparent.

2.2. Sculptures and architectural members

The art of producing stone sculptures and architectural members is another advancement of the Indus Civilization. Even though a few specimens of stone sculptures have been discovered so far, they fully attest the style and craftsmanship of the Harappans. Most of the stone sculptures are broken ones showing a seated cross-legged person with one leg drawn upwards. The material for making these sculptures is limestone, sandstone, ‘greystone’. A red sandstone torso from Harappa is an exceptional example of the Harappan craftsmanship and distinct from other sculptures which are mostly in a seated posture. The sculpture from Harappa is a broken one with head and arms missing. The sockets for fixing the arms also is visible near the shoulder. Another sculpture from Harappa is that of a ‘dancer’, depicted with a raised left leg, while the arms are missing.

The seated male sculptures are mostly broken and found from Mohenjo Daro, while a headless sandstone sculpture is reported from Dholavira. These sculptures have a similar posture and adorned with a cloak over the left shoulder except the one at Dholavira which is not clear in execution. The sculpture of a seated male from limestone from Mohenjo Daro (height 33.5 cm) is near complete except corrosion due to weathering. This sculpture is adorned with shell inlay in one eye. The face is depicted with shaved upper lip and combed beard. Another head of a sandstone sculpture from Mohenjo Daro (height 13.5 cm), is badly weathered and broken, is depicted with a combed hair and head band. A limestone headless sculpture from Mohenjo Daro (height 28 cm) has details of the seated male figure, with the left leg drawn upwards and right leg folded, and the respective arms resting on each leg. The details of the braided hair lock and ribbon is also well preserved indicating the nature of hairdo during the Indus Civilization of prominent individuals. The sandstone sculpture from Dholavira is a seated one with a flat base, with arms resting on the knees on drawn up legs, which are kept apart to show the genitals. The rear of this sculpture depicts falling hair lots. The sculpture has no features indicating clothing. The sculpture also shows evidence of damage and vandalism.

The finest example of craftsmanship is that of ‘Priest King’ sculpture from Mohenjo Daro. This steatite sculpture (height 17.5 cm), partly broken below the arms, however, indicates a seated posture and comparable with the headless seated sculpture from the same site. The lower portion of this sculpture is broken, but nevertheless preserves the probable posture of the person, which is very similar to other examples. The evidence of drapery worn on the left shoulder and covers most part of upper body except the right shoulder is most elaborately decorated with trefoil decorative patterns. Inside these trefoil patters are sunken spaces and evidence of nail impressions, clearly indicating adornment of inlays within them. These inlaid pieces were carved and painted with red pigment. The hair is groomed well, held together by a fillet covering the forehead with a central circular inlaid ornament. The findings of gold fillets from Harappan sites like Mohenjo Daro, Allahdino closely resembles this decorative pattern. The discovery of a circular gold object with steatite inlaid at the centre tallies well with the central decorative piece worn on the forehead of this sculpture. The eyes are depicted narrow and could have been inlaid, while the upper lip is shaven and beard groomed nicely. The rear portion of head is finished flat and the presence of one deep groove below each ear has been to hold an elaborate horn and plumed head-dress as interpreted by Mark Kenoyer.

The best examples of stone workmanship is also found in the form of finely finished and polished architectural members, from the sites of Harappa, Mohenjo Daro and Dholavira. Dholavira, has been particularly exceptional in terms of a variety of findings and also yielding evidence of a limestone quarry along with unfinished architectural members. These architectural members at Dholavira have been found in situ at the north and east gates of castle and also in secondary locations and used in a later period contexts. Three broad types of architectural members have been discovered so far, viz., (i) basal slabs, square on plan to hold other members on its top, (ii) circular members with concave profile, often resting on basal square slabs and (iii) truncated spherical members. The second and third variety of members have a circular hole on its top and bottom to hold wooden dowels to prevent horizontal movements. Another variety of pillar elements is also found at Harappa, with a wavy pattern on top and bottom. The discovery of three such elements from near a local shrine at Harappa have diminishing sizes, so that they rest one above other with clear interlocking of wavy patterns. Another interesting feature of the stone members from Dholavira is the discovery of a quarry site and unfinished stone members at a distance of 3 km north-northwest of the habitation site. The scientific studies carried out on the raw materials from Dholavira and finished products from Harappan and Mohenjo Daro reveal that Dholavira was the production centre for these pillar elements (particularly of truncated spherical ones) and transported to far off cities.

2.3. Terracotta figurines

Figurines modelled out of clay are found in large numbers from Indus Civilization sites. These figurines fall into two broad categories, viz., human and animal representations. The human figurines are represented by both male and female ones, and in some of the female figurines, suckling child is also depicted. The distribution of human figurines indicate that they are found mostly in the large cities of the Indus valley like Harappa and Mohenjo Daro and in Baluchistan area, while it is rarely found in the eastern and southern domains of the Indus Civilization. The site of Dholavira has also brought to light a considerable number of human figurines even though other sites in this region are devoid of such figurines. Dholavira has yielded eighteen such figurines, most of them broken and different in style and design form the Indus valley sites. This variation has been interpreted by scholars as due to regional differences in beliefs. The male and female figurines and some animals can be directly associated with the concept of fertility.

The female figurines from the Indus valley sites are elaborately decorated and shown with elaborate head-dress, multiple necklaces adorned with amulets, and multi-banded waist bands. The elaborate decoration of female figurines in contrast with the male figurines can be seen from the examples. These female figurines are also identified by some scholars as mother goddess and could have been used as a ritualistic symbol. These figurines were manufactured by potters and purchased by individuals for conducting rituals and later discarded to be used by children as toys. As these terracotta figurines are made of burnt clay, they tend to break after a certain degree of use and hence broken and then finally discarded.

Apart from the human figurines, a number of animal figurines and terracotta toy carts, wheels are found from various Harappan sites. Bull figurines dominate the assemblage followed by examples of other domesticated verities, also a very examples of terracotta unicorn. The terracotta toy carts, both hollow framed and solid framed ones help us in understanding the transport system of the Harappans. Similarly, the spoked painted patterns found on terracotta wheels found from sites like Rakhigarhi are indicators of spoked wheels used in carted carriage vehicles. Some of the animal figurines could have been used as ritual objects, but a majority of them were toys, while a few ones are also created to serve a dual purpose of playful objects as well as a whistle. Examples of puppetry can also been seen in a few cases, e.g. from Karanpura, in which the head was separately modelled and fixed on a groove, while it can be drawn up and down as a puppet with the help of a string.

2.4. Lapidary

The settled life of humans at the onset of Holocene and the subsequent food production stages led to a surplus in the food products, which facilitated support of arts and crafts. This is reflected in a divergent variety of artefacts of various sorts that were purely decorative and aesthetical and not of any functional value. They also reflect the social status of the owner and often the archaeological record brings to light a large number of such artefacts like terracotta figurines, jewellery (beads, bangles, pendants, amulets, and others). Humans principally wore jewellery to decorate themselves and through the passage of time since its introduction, it grew from simple to complex, fashioned on local to materials procured from faraway places. Based on the simplicity or complex nature of the ornaments combined with the nature of raw material, time consumed for final production of ornaments, the ornaments or ornament styles can be ranked and differentiated on the basis of raw materials and technology.

Along with beads, pendants and amulets were also in use for creating a combination of necklaces, sometimes with various coloured stones and precious metals like gold. In the Indian subcontinent, beads of turquoise, steatite, shell, dentalium, calcite, lapis lazuli are noticed as early from the Neolithic levels of Mehrgarh (7th – 4th millennium BCE). The presence of turquoise beads from the Neolithic levels is a clear evidence of long distance contacts, as turquoise had to be procured from either Iran or Central Asia, nearly 1500 km from Mehrgarh. Similar is the case with other materials like lapis lazuli and shell, which have to be procured from sources that are located far away from Mehrgarh. The Chalcolithic levels at Mehrgarh show further sophistication, and new materials appear which include carnelian, calcite and garnet beads. Also found were used and unfinished drills of phthanite among the debitage of semi-precious stones like chalcedony, agate, carnelian and turquoise. However, Kenoyer suggests that the term phthanite should be discarded as it is not an officially recognised scientific term. The evidence from Mehrgarh indicates a diversity of materials used for making beads. Through the course of transition from Neolithic to the Indus levels, more and more harder stones were introduced, while the length of the beads also increased. The mineral used for one of the drills is also identified as pumpelleyite.Among the other Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites where beads are noticed are Mahagara in the Belan valley which yielded terracotta beads from the Neolithic levels.

The Chalcolithic levels of the numerous sites in the Indus plains saw a gradual increase in the quantity as well as diversification of raw materials for making beads. This culminated in the succeeding Harappan period with an explosion of the bead industry. The Harappans were technologically much advanced in the raw material procurement, production and distribution of various kinds of beads. The Harappans exploited a wide variety of semi-precious stones for bead manufacturing. A recent study by Randall Law from Harappa indicates that, during mature Harappan phase, the Harappans exploited nearly 40 different kinds of rocks and minerals from different geographic zones. It has also been identified that out of these, only 11 varieties were present in the preceding Early Harappan and Hakra-Ravi phase of the Harappa Culture at Harappa. Gujarat, being close to the agate raw material sources has large number of sites, which have evidence for bead manufacturing. The example of a bead-manufacturing furnace from Lothal is a classic example in this regard. The modern bead manufacturing tradition at Khambhat (Gujarat) is another example on the continuity in traditional techniques even though the present-day bead-makers have adopted modern technologies.

Dholavira in Kachchh District of Gujarat represents another excellent evidence for the flourishing bead-manufacturing industry of various materials right from the earliest stage onwards. Further, the recording of at least three bead workshops at different localities of the city, one of Mature Harappa phase and two of Late Harappa phase indicates the continuity in such activities for a longer period. The presence of anvils, bead polishers, polished beads without perforation from the workshops indicates a flourishing bead trade at Dholavira. The various types of raw materials found at the site along with chipped stone wastage (debitage) helps in understanding the manufacturing processes. The Harappans manufactured beads in a variety of shapes and sizes. They also preferred materials suitable for different shapes. For steatite was found ideal for manufacturing disc and micro beads, the latter often less than 1 mm in diameter. Certain special category of beads like long barrel cylindrical and etched carnelian beads were important exports items from Harappan region to Mesopotamia. The long barrel cylindrical beads alternated with copper spacer and terminal beads were used in the production of waistbands for women, examples of such decoration can be seen on the Harappan terracotta female figurines. So far, only three such complete waistbands are known, one each from Harappa, Mohenjo Daro and Allahdino. The Allahdino example was found kept in a small pot inside a room, along with other jewellery of silver and gold. The etched carnelian beads are a kind of decorated beads wherein white coloured ‘eye’ and geometrical patterns were made with the help of alkali on red coloured agate-carnelian beads and heated. The alkali fuses into the matrix of the bead, which creates a distinct pattern on the beads. Excellent examples revealing the stages of manufacturing of long barrel cylindrical beads are found from Chanhudaro and special polishers for these beads are found from Dholavira. Examples of long barrel cylindrical and etched carnelian beads are found as far as the upper reaches of the river Euphrates in Syria.

The raw materials for the beads consist mainly of agate-carnelian, jasper, bloodstone, chalcedony, quartz, amazonite, claystone, lapis lazuli, sandstone, limestone, faience, steatite, paste, amethyst, vesuvianite, serpentine, turquoise, and others. The proximity of prominent raw material sources in Gujarat like those at Khandik, Mardak Bet, Ratanpura, enabled the Harappans to dominate in bead manufacturing. Raw materials like lapis lazuli came from very far off places like the Badakshan region of Afghanistan. Further, the presence of a special type of drill bits of a material known as ‘ernestite’ also dominates during the Harappan period in Gujarat. Dholavira alone has recorded more than 1500 drill bits of ernestite, the largest so far recorded from any Harappan site. The drill bits of ernestite are slightly harder than agate-carnelian silica and hence suitable to drill these harder materials and were a superior technology during third millennium BCE. This technology was later replaced by diamond tipped drills during first millennium BCE, which made the drilling process very easy and fast.

The contemporary bead manufacturing industry at Khambhat, Gujarat, has helped in understanding the chaine opertoire processes. At Khambhat, one can see a long continuity of manufacturing in terms of some of the same techniques in sorting, chipping, several stages of heating to create the distinct reddish orange colour to agate -carnelian. The traditional drilling at Khambat consists of double tipped diamond drills driven by a bow. A pot filled with water and provision for its dripping over the drilling surface enables the bead to remain cool and not to split due to extensive heat produced due to drilling. The polishing of the beads at Khambhat is at present carried out on a mechanised emery wheel.

2.5. Bangles

An important aspect of the Harappan artistic expression is bangles of various materials. Bangles of terracotta, shell, faience, copper, silver, gold, stoneware have been found from different Harappan sites. The material used in the manufacture of bangles help in also assessing the social status of the population.

A large percentage of bangle collection was made of terracotta. The raw material for terracotta is clay, whichislocally available and can be manufactured very easily. These terracotta bangles are often painted in while and black pigments, indicating preference to decorations on them. It is also interesting to know that Kalibangan, a prominent site on the river Ghaggar in Rajasthan is known for thousands of black bangles found on the surface of ancient habitation. The name ‘Kalibangan’ is thus after the large number of black (Kali) bangle (Banga) finds. Terracotta bangles are found in various sizes, thickness and diameters clearly indicating its need for different age groups. Invariably in most of the cases, the section of terracotta bangles is a circle. Examples of conjoined terracotta bangles and bangles with rectangular cross-section with grooves on the exterior are also found from Harappan sites.

The bangles of shell, faience and stoneware are dealt under the respective sections.

2.6. Seals and sealings

Seals and sealings were administrative and bureaucratic records, which enable us to understand the transaction details during the Harappan Civilization. The seals contain a script, so far undeciphered along with animal motifs. The origin of Harappan script is very complex and scholars have agreed that it is not related to any known script. The necessity for developing a script for recording the trade could have been felt by a group of merchants or guilds, which was later adopted throughout the Harappan Civilization. The excavation at various sites indicates that graffitti marks on pottery could have been the precursors to Harappan script. Indication for this is obtained from the excavation at Harappa, which shows several graffitti signs appearing on potsherds of early Harappan phase become Harappan script later. The exact place of origin of Harappan script is also difficult to surmise.

The Harappan script has been found on nearly 5000 objects of various materials like steatite, faience and metal seals; clay seal impressions, pots and potsherds, copper plates, incised shells, ivory cones and rods, stone and metal bangles, copper weapons, stones. The inscriptions are extremely short with an average count of five signs. The longest inscription found so far is of twenty-six signs. The computerized analysis of the signs, which are abstract in nature and hence called graphemes, has led to a general agreement among scholars for a total number of 400 – 450 graphemes.

Most of the graphemes are found on Harappan seals, which are good examples of craftsmanship in the execution of scripts as well as other motifs. A majority of the seals are square in shape and made from steatite. The excavation at Dholavira indicates that during early Harappan phase, only the motifs were carved on the seal. The seals were standardized during Harappan phase, during which an inscription occupies on the top of seal, an animal motif at the bottom occupying nearly two-thirds of the seal, with a manger in front of it. The late Harappan seals are rectangular in shape, with only the inscriptions, while the motifs disappear. Thus a clear evolution of seals could be observed from Dholavira. The knob or boss with a perforation on the reverse of square seals has a bipartite division, while the rectangular ones have a plano-convex rear with a perforation.

Scholars agree that the motifs and inscription are carved on soapstone, polished and fired at high temperatures to produce a glazed surface due to the addition of an alkali. Soapstone also becomes harder due to firing at high temperature. The inscription is carved on the top of the seals, a majority of them in a single line, written from right to light. Boustrophedon style of writing, in which the inscription is written from right to light in the first row, and left to right in second row, and so on is also noticed for a very few long inscriptions.

The animal motifs and inscriptions on the seals themselves are excellent pieces of art exhibiting a high sophistication of carving styles. Among the animals depicted, unicorn dominates with 65% of depiction. The other animals depicted on the seals are buffalo, elephant and rhinoceros.

The seals were used to mark the transactions on wet clay placed over sealed consignments. Often multiple seal impressions are noticed on a single clay lump, thereby indicating hierarchical checking points. Once the consignments reach the right place of destination, the clay lumps are broken and thrown away. They are found in excavations in limited quantity, as they were unbaked. Some sealings are baked by accident and hence preserved in a better condition. The finding of 93 sealings from the context of a warehouse is the largest finding so far at a single place from any Harappan site.

A special category of seals is also found from Harappan sites depicting narrative scenes, the exact meaning of them is difficult to ascertain. A seal from Mohenjo Daro depicts a seated deity in yogic position with erect phallus and wearing a headgear resembling buffalo horns. Animals like rhinoceros, water buffalo, tiger, and an elephant surround the deity with a one-line inscription on the top. Two antelopes are depicted below the pedestal. Some scholars identify the deity as “proto-Siva”, due to the similarity in iconographic depiction. In the absence of decipherment of Harappan script, the exact meaning attached to this seated deity is difficult to ascertain.

Another seal from Mohenjo Daro depicts worship of a deity with horned headgear and standing on a pipal tree. A kneeled figure is shown worshipping this deity. An antelope stands behind the kneeled figure, and a row of seven figures is shown below. This seal is another example of certain religious practices of Harappans. Several depictions of deity with horned headgear can be seen on seals, moulded tablets, and in one case on a terracotta cake from Kalibangan.

Examples of seal carving are also found from sites like Mohenjo Daro, Harappa and Dholavira. A blank steatite seal with only an outline of unicorn and another seal with two erased letters of an already complete seal gives clues regarding manufacture and reuse. An unfinished seal from Harappa shows carving of animal and manger, while a blank space above the animal was left blank for future use. Such examples indicate the sequence of events in carving portions of the seal.

2.7. Shell objects

Shell working is another important craft activity of the Harappans. Antiquity of shell working can be found as early as 7th millennium BCE at Mehrgarh. Shell was worked increasingly at the coastal sites of Saurshtra and Kachchh due to their proximity to raw material sources. Important evidences of such shell manufacturing have come from sites of Golo Dhoro (Bagasra) and Nagwada, both in Gujarat and located along the shores of Little Rann of Kachchh. The important shell varieties exploited by the Harappans were Turbinella pyrum, Chicoreus ramosus, Lambis truncata sebae and Fasciolaria trapeziumof the gastropod variety. These shell varieties are larger in size and suitable for manufacturing ladles, complete bangles and a variety of inlay patterns, both of geometric and non-geometric patterns. Mark Kenoyer has identified specific varieties of items manufactured from Turbinella pyrum (bangles, inlay from body whorl and solid objects from central columella), Choreus ramosus (ladles, bangles and spoons), Lambis truncata sebae (large flat inlay pieces) and Fasciolaria trapezium (inlay from thick body whorl). The shell species have specific coastal areas of distribution and hence a good indicator of trade. While Turbinella pyrum is found along the coast near Karachi and Gulf of Kachchh, Chicoreus ramosus is found along the Gulf of Kachchh. The coastal region of Oman was also a major source of varieties of shells such as Chicoreus ramosus, Fasciolaria trapezium and Fasciolaria trapezium.

The shell manufacturing followed a specific pattern of organisation as depicted from the sites of Bagasra and Nagwada. While at Bagasra thousands of complete shell bangles out of Turbinella pyrum have been found along with raw materials and discarded columella portion, the evidence from Nagwada shows manufacture of inlay pieces and smaller objects from columella portion. Thus, it can be observed that certain sites were only manufacturing bangles, others were specialised in producing smaller objects. Kenoyer also demonstrated the sequence of events in which the complete Turbinella pyrum shell was sawn to produce complete circlets and then a chevron (>) design engraved. In the case of ladle manufacture from Chicoreus ramosus, the large spiky portions on the exterior portion were struck off followed by chipping off the spiral columella and grinding the remaining unwanted portions to create different sizes of ladles.

Examples of use of shell bangles are found from various human representations from Harappan civilization. The famous dancing girl figure from Mohenjo Daro depicts set of bangles on her left hand, which has parallels from female burial in Harappa as well as ethnographic parallels in modern Gujarat. The deity in “proto-Siva” seal is also shown wearing set of bangles on both hands.

The columella of shell species was used for manufacturing a variety of inlay pieces, beads, discs, weights, geometrical and non-geometrical objects as mentioned above. Dholavira, which was another major shell industry in Gujarat, has a range of such inlay pieces.

2.8. Faience objects

Faience is a refractory material and is also a precursor of glass of Early Historic period. Faience was extensively used by the Harappans for manufacturing various artefacts like beads both medium and tiny, bangles, tokens, figurines, vessels, and others. The earliest recorded faience object is from Harappan datable to 3300 BCE. According to Mark Kenoyer, faience was manufactured with a technique known as efflorescence, in which colour of glaze and interior core are of identical colour. Two different processes of efflorescene have been noticed in the Harappan faience. In the first process, powdered quartz mixed with flux and colourant is used to produce a faience paste and in the second process, quartz powder is partly melted mixed with a colourant to produce a frit. This frit is then mixed with additional flux to produce faience paste.

The presence of quartz pebbles at Harappan sites like Harappa, Mitathal, and others indicates its use for manufacturing faience. In particular, at Mitathal in Haryana evidence of a series of faience furnace along with several faience artefacts helps in understanding the faience production. The analysis of Harappan faience indicates the presence of alumina, sodium and potassium, which has been interpreted by Kenoyer that they are derived due to the addition of adhesives, flux or colourants.

Mark Kenoyer also suggests the stages in manufacture of faience bangles. It consists of preparing a coil of faience paste and winding it over a tapered mandrel, joined together at the ends and left for drying. The partially dried bangle was then decorated with the desired designs like cross lines and chevron patterns and slowly heated to produce the efflorescence effect. The Harappan faience is distinct blue or blue green. Other colours noticed among the faience beads are yellow and white. Apart from single coloured faience objects, the Harappans also produced a variety of bichrome and multi-coloured faience objects like beads, often reminding glass wound beads of later period. Faience was also used to imitate the stone eye beads and etched carnelian beads. A combination of white and brown colours were used to produce the faience eye beads, while white and red colours were used for imitating the etched carnelian beads. At the Late Harappan burial site of Sanauli in western Uttar Pradesh, several faience beads exhibit a development of complex multi-coloured technique similar to wound glass beads of later times.

2.9. Stoneware

Stoneware bangles are a distinct class of artefacts of Harappan Civilization, which as per Vidale is highly siliceous, partially sintered, homogenous ceramic body, usually free from inclusions or voids visible to naked eye, and characterised by very low porosity. The stoneware bangles come in two varieties, viz., those with pinkish grey to black in colour, resulting from reduced firing conditions and other with a range of reddish shades due to re-oxidation. Several examples of this highly sophisticated bangle type are know from urban centres like Harappa, Mohenjo Daro and Dholavira. Some of these bangles have micro inscriptions inscribed on them before firing, probably indicating ownership records.

The surface mapping of Mohenjo Daro during the 1980s enabled to record a stoneware bangle workshop which brought to light a mechanism of double system of closed saggers. Studies by Halim and Vidale have enabled in a graphical reconstruction of Coated Carinated Jar (CCJ) in a kiln, which consists of double containers, one within the other, the outer one resting on terracotta bangles for support. The exterior surface of the container was properly insulated from the high temperature conditions by applying chaff tempered coatings. The unbaked stoneware bangles were placed inside the inner container and finally closed and a sealing impression of a unicorn seal is also made. The presence of sealing on the lid of container is a clear indication of controlled mechanism of manufacture of such highly sophisticated bangles. Scholars agree that the stoneware bangle technology emerged from the already existing terracotta bangle manufacturing technique.

The technology of stoneware bangles was lost with the end of Harappan Civilization and scholars working on experimental archaeology are yet to produce successful replication.

2.10. Metallurgy

The Harappans inherited their knowledge in collection of raw materials, smelting and production of various metals to their antecedent Chalcolithic cultures. Harappans used a variety of metals, viz., copper, lead, silver, gold and electrum. Other metals found from Harappan context, though in traces, are zinc and cinnabar. They also mastered the alloying technology and produced bronze bymixing copper with arsenic and tin. They also gained expertise in exploiting the various raw material resources. The exact identification of raw material sources require scientific provenance studies. However, a survey of raw material sources indicates those from Afghanisthan and Baluchistan (southern Afghanistan Seistan, referred to as Gardan -i-Reg), Oman and Rajasthan (Khetri, Alwar, Ambaji mines). Scholars agree that the Harappans did not smelt copper and could have imported them in ingot form. The lack of slag heaps generally associated with smelting is not found from Harappan sites, but rather found near the ore sources like Khetri in Rajasthan and Oman. The ingots are of plano-convex shape and examples are reported from Lothal, Dholavira, Chanhu-daro, Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. These ingots were broken into desired fragments and melted to produce various implements. The evidence of kilns with a heavily vitrified interior surface and a blackened surface is found at Harappa, Lothal and Mohenjo Daro.

Casting in a technology for modifiying the ingots to secondary ingots or to produce finished products using moulds. Examples of cast made objects have been reported from sites like Chanhudaro (a covered cart with wheels missing and a complete cart with driver holding the goad), Harappa and Mohenjo Daro (dancing girl). Other technological and craft activities associated with metallurgy as defined by Kenoyer are fabrication (modification of non -molten metal), shaping (controlled mechanical stretching of metal), forging (controlled shaping of a metal by a hammer), spinning and turning (mechanical stretching using a lathe instead of hammer), drawing (in which copper or silver wire are produced), cutting (thin sheets of metal cut to produce desired shape with the aid of ‘V’ shaped chisels), joining (cold joinng with the aid of rivet and hot by pouring another metal at the joint portion), finishing (filing, engraving, setting, and others; particularly noticeable in the case of silver and gold objects as copper is heavily corroded).

Metals were used to produce a variety of utilitarian objects. Thus copper was used to produce seals, tablets, fish hooks, pins, antimony rods, mirrors, beads, bangles, rings, composite ornaments in association with gold, silver; and implements like spearheads, adzes, axes, hoes, arrowheads, chisels, knives, large blade tools; tools like copper drills, saws or scrapers and utensils like plates, vessels. Copper implements were also highly prized during Harappans and served probably as status symbols. Examples of large number of copper objects are found in hoards. One such example is a hoard from Harappa wherein a large cooking pot covered by a bronze plate contained numerous copper tools and weapons like straight edged axes, shouldered axes, blade axes, double axes, daggers, spearheads, chisels, saws, arrowheads, lancehead, bowl.

Silver objects like spiral rings, beads, bangles, composite ornaments are found. Gold was used to produce chiefly ornaments separately and also in association with copper, steatite and others.

Gold fillets are also reported from Harappan sites like Allahdino (from a complete hoard of agate-carnelian waist band, silver and gold ornaments), Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. The fillets are thin strip of gold sheet which were worn on the forehead and tied at the back. Example of a similar filler in combination with an inlaid circular object can be seen on the ‘Priest King’ figure from Mohenjo Daro. Interestingly, similar circular objects of gold and copper inlaid with steatite are reported from sites like Harappa and Dholavira.

2.11. Textiles

Organic remains like textiles are uncommon from archaeological records and it is the same in case of Harappan Civilization. Evidence of types of dress styles are evident from several terracotta figurines. The cloak worn by ‘Priest King’ is another example of embroidered garments worn by elite Harappans. Often impressions of textiles on clay objects are good evidence to investigate the weaving pattern technology of Harappans. One such example at Harappa was anlaysed by Kenoyer, who interprets the use of spinning wheels due to uniform thickness of threads in a single piece of fabric and the tight weave. The presence of spindle whorls right from the Early Harappan phase at sites like Harappa (Pakistan), Karanpura (Rajasthan) are good evidence of textile production. The other evidence for looms and textile production are grooved bricks and stones (used probably as loom weights). The presence of distinctive curved copper/ bronze knives from Harappan sites has been interpreted by Kenoyer as indirect evidence of production of carpets.

Further, threads used to string metal beads and cloth used to wrap metal implements are preserved with the aid of metal salts. Evidence of such thread remains and impressions are found inside copper beads and implements form sites such as Mohenjo Daro, Harappa and Dholavira. The impression on copper implements termed as pseudomorphs also help in identification of weaving pattern as indicated by an example from Harappa. A copper bead necklace preserved remains of tussar silk thread which was identified with the aid of a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Similarly a copper bead from Dholavira preserved remains of a thread which has been tentatively identified as cotton/jute fabric.

Conclusion

The above account clearly helps us to understand the sophistication and diversification of the Harappan craftsmanship in devising technologies used for creating various implements and objects. This technology was also due to the preceding phases of innovations starting right from Neolithic period onwards, which gradually progressed during Chalcolithic period and peaked in the Harappan Civilization. Several aspects of scientific studies have helped in understanding the manufacturing of beads, figurines, metal implements and tools. It has also helped in determining the provenance of raw materials used for various craft activities. The provenance studies help in understanding the cultural contacts between urban and rural societies and the complex socio-cultural phenomena.

Web links

• http://www.harappa.com/
• http://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/harappa-mohenjodaro
• http://www.harappa.com/har/indus-saraswati.html
• http://www.asi.nic.in/asi_exca_2007_dholavira.asp
• http://www.asi.nic.in/asi_exca_2007_bhirrana.asp
• http://www.asi.nic.in/asi_exca_2007_sanauli.asp
• http://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opj4px4vK9s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zcGLlLEbmI
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=joFlQItvc7Q.

Bibliography

• Allchin, F. Raymond, ed., (1995) The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
•  Kenoyer, J.M. (1998) Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, Oxford
• Possehl, G.L. (2003) Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, Vistaar Publications
•  Possehl, G.L., (1979) Ancient Cities of the Indus“, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi.
• Possehl, G.L., (1999) Indus Age; The Beginnings, Oxford and IBH Publishing, New Delhi.