27 Chalcolithic Cultures Northern and Central India

Parth Chouhan

epgp books

 

 

 

Introduction 

 

 The Chalcolithic period refers to the intermediate time of culture and technological change between the Neolithic and the early Iron Age, and which was dominated by various agro-pastoral groups. The Chalcolithic phase was heralded by the discovery, introduction and widespread use of various metals such as copper, tin and bronze, along with the continuation of stone technology (hence chalco-lithic). In some regions, it is referred to as the Bronze Age, a period where agriculture and animal/plant domestication increased multifold since the Neolithic and also represented the roots of subsequent urbanization. Indeed, this was the time when the first farming villages were established and flourished in sync with changing seasonal environments, particularly along river valleys and forest edges. The primary river valley cultures appear to have respectively developed into civilizations independently in China, South Asia, the Near East and Egypt. In South Asia, the Chalcolithic phase is dominated by the well-structured and long-studied evidence of the Harappan or Indus civilization who also manufactured some gold objects. This culture was primarily spread across modern-day Pakistan and northwest India along major rivers as well as in intermediate and periphery zones. Contemporary with this civilization existed other farming and pastoralist cultures which hades independent regional identities across parts of the Indian suBCEontinent. Some of the most prominent non-Harappan chalcolithic cultures were spread across Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and included Prabhas, Rangpur, Ahar-Banas, Kayatha, Malwa, Jorwe and Savalda cultures. Other regions were homes to cultures that produced such entities as Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) and Copper Hoards in the Indo-Ganga region and Upper Ganga-Yamuna doab. In some regions of South Asia such as Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Burma, the Neolithic/Chalcolithic phase is absent or is yet to be properly identified. Almost all the Chalcolithic cultures are associated with deposits of black cotton soil but geographically distinguished based on differing pottery wares and other minor attributes. In addition to basic agriculture, many of these Chalcolithic populations also participated in hunting, fishing and craft production at comparatively smaller scales. Like the Harappan sites, many of these Chalcolithic sites are fortified and evidence from Gilund, Balathal and Inamgaon indicates the beginning of chiefdoms.

 

Unfortunately, most of these Chalcolithic cultures are not scientifically well-known and the current archaeological evidence suggests none to minimal contact/interaction with the Harappans. In any case, none of these South Asian civilizations or cultures (including the Harappans) reached the physical zeniths as evinced in Egypt and Mesopotamia from that time. Instead, they varied considerably in scale and levels of architectural, economic, cultural, technological and literary developments. It is observed that the changing environments/climate coupled with the lack of widespread availability/use of iron technology led to the decline or failure of early farming communities in Maharashtra (unlike Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh) before the Iron Age was well established.

 

2. Objective

 

This module focuses primarily on the Ahar-Banas, Kayatha and Malwa cultures of northwestern and central India. All three cultures have differing chronologies and were short-lived in comparison to the Harappans: Kayatha Culture (2000-1800 BCE); Ahar-Banas Culture (3700-1830 BCE); Malwa Culture (1700-1500 BCE). The Kayatha and Malwa cultures are distributed in the Malwa region of western Madhya Pradesh while western Maharashtra preserves the Malwa and Jorwe cultures.

 

3. General Characteristics

 

Most sites were subsequently abandoned while others were succeeded by Early Historic and Iron Age cultures. While many sites can be labelled as small villages, most known sites can be classified as small hamlets, farmsteads or craft production centres. Very few Chalcolithic sites preserve lengthy stratigraphic and multi-cultural sequences, and compared to the Harappan evidence, very few Chalcolithic sites have been excavated or well-dated. It is clear however, that some Chalcolithic cultures lasted longer than others and often overlapping with late-surviving Neolithic/Mesolithic adaptations in other regions, reasons of which are currently unknown. Some of the previously excavated sites and/or unexcavated sites require urgent scientific attention using multidisciplinary techniques to comprehensively reveal and reconstruct past human lifeways and the roots of sedentism.

 

With some exceptions, the majority of the dwellings were single storied and made of mud-bricks and mud and wattle, before being plastered with cow dung and lime. Most of the individual homes had single rooms although multi-storied rooms have been recorded at Inamgaon in Maharashtra. Presumably thatched straw roofs were supported by wooden posts, as reflected in the numerous postholes recovered during excavations at several sites. At Inamgaon, there is also evidence of an architectural transition from circular to rectangular dwellings/huts. The primary remains of domesticated animals recovered thus far include those of cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep and pig in addition to a number of wild species (wild boar, various types of deer and small insectivores and carnivores). The evidence of horse domestication and exploitation is observed to arrive comparatively late or at the terminal Chalcolithic and early Iron Age interface. Some sites have yielded clear evidence of butchery and meat consumption as well as spatial patterning in the processing of the carcasses and meat. Fish consumption was also prominent at some sites based on the presence of fish-bones and fishing hooks and associated technologies and tools found. Perforated stone discs may have been utilized as weights for digging sticks for various activities including food acquisition. In fact, usage of tools made of stone, wood, bone and antler were more widespread than the use of copper and bronze, mostly due to availability, affordability and technological capability. When exploited, it was used to make axes, knives, spearheads, fish-hooks, pins, chisels and even beads, bangles and anklets; shell was also used to make ornaments. Stone tool use was abundant in the form of choppers, flakes, microliths and other types. Semi-precious stone such as chalcedony, jasper, agate and carnelian were used for making beads and other ornaments. Other types of antiquities made of terracotta found at such sites include toy-cart wheels, spindle-whorls, hopscotches and sling-balls.

 

Although we know agriculture was extensively practiced, the evidence of ploughs and hoes is minimal. A variety of crops were seasonally grown at different times and include barley, wheat, rice, millet, green pea, lentils, grams (bajra, jowar, ragi). Stone grinders, mullers and hammers were used for processing food. The predominance of pots, bowls and basins and the marginal presence of dishes and ‘plates’ may suggest that most meals consisted of liquid and semi -liquid preparations. The processing of these grains and crops is evident from the presence of stone grinders, pestles, mullers and hammers. While the Neolithic comprised mostly of hand-made pottery, the Chalcolithic sites have yielded both hand-made and wheel-made varieties, the latter being more dominant. As stated, all of these cultures are distinguished primarily on the geographic distribution patterns of the various types of pottery which included differing slips, decorations and stylistic motifs on different shapes. Spouted vessels were also very common at these sites unlike the Harappan sites. Many of the pottery types preserve a fine slip of red, orange or russet colour, demonstrating the first appearance of Black and Red Ware which came to prominence during subsequent occupations. These reddish pottery vessels were decorated with linear, curvilinear and intricate designs using black pigment as well as applique and incised methods. The motifs included varieties of flora, fauna and geometric patterns.

 

Unlike the Harappan burials and cemeteries which were located away from main occupational areas, the deceased at Chalcolithic sites were often buried within the habitational areas. The adults were buried directly in the ground an extended position as opposed to flexed positions and occasionally, the feet were missing, i.e. presumed to be ritually removed prior to the burial. At some sites, the burials were placed inside large earthen urns and small children were buried in large pots arranged ‘mouth to mouth’. Based on the presence of terracotta figurines such as female figures (e.g. Inamgaon) and bull figures (e.g. Kayatha), archaeologists have suggested religious practice and worship. The large number of Chalcolithic sites that have been discovered reflect the growing population levels at different places across the Indian subcontinent. Despite this increase, there does not seem to have been constant interaction between the various Chalcolithic and Neolithic cultures across the entire region. However, the presence of specific stone tools and other signs suggests some interaction between the Chalcolithic villagers and the Mesolithic/Neolithic local hunter-gatherers, reflecting the regional diversity of ecological and techno-behavioural adaptations across the Indian subcontinent.

 

4. The Ahar-Banas Culture

 

The Ahar-Banas culture is best known for its distribution of 111 sites sites across the Mewar region of southeastern Rajasthan, along the Banas River and its tributaries in the districts of Banswara, Udaipur, Chittaurgarh, Bhilwara, Bundi and Ajmer. The undulating region is rocky and interspersed with deposits of fertile soil and vegetated zones and this culture was contemporaneous with the Harappan Civilisation. Most of our knowledge of this culture comes from only three excavated sites- the type site at Ahar in Udaipur and the nearby sites of Balathal, Gilund and Ojiyana. Site catchment analyses at Balathal has also identified smaller satellite sites which supported the larger sites in terms of resource acquisition. Gilund is the largest known site of this culture and which also preserves evidence of the Iron Age. The site of Ojiyana in the Aravalli Hills of Bhilwara District in Rajasthan revealed a 7.5 meter sequence of the Ahar culture. It has also yielded cow figurines and unique painted bull figurines made of terracotta, the latter thought to represent a cult or religion.

 

Balathal has been extensively excavated for multiple seasons from 1994 to 2000. In terms of a  high-resolution chronological framework, Balathal is an exception among Chalcolithic sites-with 30 radiocarbon dates bracketing the Ahar-Banas culture between 3700 and 1830 BCE (calibrated). The upper part of the stratigraphy preserves evidence of an Early Historic occupation which followed the Ahar-Banas culture after the site was abandoned for a short period of time. The houses comprised single to multi-rooms and varied in shape including rectangular, squarish and circular. They were mainly made of stone, mudbrick and mud. The larger structures massive foundations of stone and mudbrick, more than a metre in width.

 

Above this were constructed walls of mud for further reinforcement. Many of the homes also contained both aboveground and underground bins for storing grains. Some of the excavated kitchen areas preserved U-shaped ovens (chulas), stone saddle querns and rubberstones for grinding cereals and pulses. Both Balathal and Gilund have also yielded large silos for grain storage, and which were lined with grass and lime-plastered.

 

Sites such as Balathal have also yielded evidence of streets and lanes, suggesting that these villages and small towns were also planned or structured as at Harappan sites. Various lines of evidence suggest variations in the economic and/or class backgrounds at individual sites, in the form of house qualities, sizes and the materials used in their construction. The foundation walls of many of these regular structures are up to 1.25 m in width and made of semi-dressed stones. Most habitation was located outside the fortified areas, and at Balathal, the centre of the fortification preserves an open area of 600 m2 which was filled with burnt cow dung and ash, and the fortified walls were made of stone, mudbrick and mud with a base measuring seven meters in width. The squarish fortification had four bastions on the four respective corners and burnt Chalcolithic pottery and up to three human skeletons were found within the ash inside the fortification. In addition, no proper entrance to the open space is evident and the function of the fortification remains an enigma (at Chalcolithic sites in general) and the open space may have been for rituals. Recent paleopathological research on one of these skeletons has yielded the oldest evidence of leprosy in the Indian Subcontinent and suggests early (direct or indirect) contact with African populations. The Ahar layers at Dangwada yielded burnt (presumably) human remains in two urn burials. Balathal has also yielded the oldest mud rampart (30 x 15 m) in Rajasthan.

 

For economy and subsistence, the people of the Ahar-Banas culture mostly relied on cultivation, animal husbandry and regional hunting practices. They grew wheat (Triticum sp.), barley (Hordeum vulgare), lentil (Lens esculenta Moench), the common pea (Pisum arvense L.), finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.), Italian millet (Setaria italic Beauv.) and panicum millet (Panicum sp.). Paleobotanical investigations at Ojiyana yielded remains of barley, dwarf wheat, bread wheat, rice, varieties of millet, horse gram, lentils, peas, moth bean, chickpea, sesame seeds and sunflower. Domesticated animals included cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and pig and they also hunted wild animals such as gaur (Bos gaurus), nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), chausingha (Tetracerus quardricornis) and blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra). The evidence of domestication and consumption of these various animals comes from the large quantities of bones and teeth recovered during excavations, many of which were often burnt/charred. Such evidence is key in revealing a regular intake of meat by the villagers along with the harvested crops, grains and rice. In addition to the meat, marrow was also frequently extracted from the long bones of medium to large-sized mammals. Remains of turtles, molluscs and fish have also been recovered, reflecting a varied diet based on local available resources.

 

In addition to the copper objects mentioned earlier, these Ahar culture excavations also yielded tanged arrowheads as well as a variety of bone tools including points. Other recovered antiquities include beads made from semiprecious stones, steatite and terracotta objects, copper rings and ornaments of copper and bone. The Ahar -Banas culture is defined by a rich and diverse range of pottery types including both fine and coarse wares. An X-Ray Diffraction analysis of Balathal ceramic specimens even indicated that the site was a regional trading center. The fine group includes Tan Ware, Thin Red Ware and the ubiquitous Black and Red Ware while the course group includes Thick Red Ware and Grey Ware. The fine wares are made of better quality clays and are better fired than the coarse wares. All of these wares different in terms of shapes, fabric, designs and decorations. For example, the Tan Ware was similar to some Harappan pottery and comprised carinated dishes, dishes-on-stand and globular jars with deep grooves between tall applique ridges on the outside. The Thin Red Ware mainly consisted of convex-sided bowls and vessels that resemble today’s steel lota. Many of the Black and Red Ware vessels were straight-sided and also included carinated shallow and deep bowls and were painted on both surfaces in white pigment with geometric motifs. In comparison, the coarse wares are made of lower quality clay and comparatively less well-fired, evident from the cross sections of the numerous ceramic shards. The finer wares were used more for drinking and eating while the coarser wares, such as jars and handis of various sizes, were used for storage and cooking. These vessels variably preserved slip, were burnished and decorated with grooves and a range of applique and cut designs. A study of Ahar-Banas pottery and demonstrated the value and use of pottery assemblages in establishing cultural chronologies and trends in technological developments. The latest classification shows four broad groups: Red Ware, Grey/Black Ware, Black and Red Ware and Buff ware, based on technique of production still prevalent among the traditional potters in southeast Rajasthan.

 

5. Kayatha Culture

 

Over 40 sites of the Kayatha Culture have been reported from the Malwa region in Madhya Pradesh which is adjacent to the Mewar region of Rajasthan. Many sites are located in association with the drainage system of the Chambal River. Unfortunately, only two of these Kayatha sites have been excavated: the type-site of Kayatha and Dangwada. Both these sites have yielded all three regional Chalcolithic cultural horizons: Kayatha, Ahar-Banas and Malwa. The 15 meter stratigraphic sequence at Dangwada revealed cultural layers ranging from the Chalcolithic to the early Medieval. Based on these limited excavations, we know that the people of this culture resided in small huts which had well -rammed floors; one structure at Dangwada had a floor made of small pebbles. As did other Chalcolithic cultures, these people cultivated various crops although additional plant remains were not recovered. They also exploited domesticated animals such as cattle, goat and sheep. An interesting find at Kayatha is the possible early presence (late 3rd millennium BCE) of the horse – as compared with other Chalcolithic sites- in the form of horse bones and a terracotta horse figurine. The presence of the horse has often been associated with the arrival/invasion of the so-called ‘Aryans’ from Central Asia but almost all Chalcolithic sites at this time lack the requisite evidence such as horse bones, chariots and so forth. An additional problem is being able to distinguish between the bones of the horse (Equus caballus), the donkey (Equus asinus) and the wild ass (Equus hemionus). In that respect, non-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures such as the ones mentioned here require additional archaeological attention to address the ‘horse issue’ (and other unanswered questions) more comprehensively.

 

The most common pottery representing the Kayatha Culture is the Chocolate-slipped Ware which is sturdy, well-baked and includes convex-sided jars and carinated dishes, similar to those of the Tan Ware of the Ahar-Banas culture. Some of the vessels were decorated with linear designs with black pigment. Other wares of the Kayatha Culture include Buff Ware with paintings in red and Combed Ware in which the decoration is represented by groups of incised wavy lines. A handmade Grey Ware is also known and its main shapes are handis, basins and storage jars. Like other Chalcolithic cultures, the Kayatha people used both copper and stone tools. The former included elongated axes and the latter comprise microliths and blades. This culture is also known for producing copper bangles, beads of semi-precious stones and micro -beads made of steatite. Preliminary radiocarbon dates suggest a chronological presence between 2000 and 1800 BCE for this culture.

 

6. Malwa Culture in Malwa

 

In terms of the number of sites, the Malwa Culture is much more widespread than the Kayatha Culture, with over one hundred sites reported from various river valleys such as Narmada, Betwa, Chambal and their associated tributaries. Again, very few sites of this culture have been excavated: Nagda, Kayatha, Navdatoli and Eran. Another well-known site with archaeological evidence belonging to the Malwa Culture is Inamgaon (Maharashtra), best known for historically being among the first systematic and multidisciplinary Chalcolithic excavations in India. It has also yielded evidence of a chiefdom. Above the Malwa cultural horizon (Period I) are preserved phases of the Jorwe Culture (Periods II and III), a regional Chalcolithic cultural geographically restricted only to Maharashtra. However, the most well-known Malwa Culture site is Navdatoli on the banks of the Narmada River as it was laterally excavated and has yielded the most archaeological evidence. As in many Chalcolithic cultures, the residential structures were made using the wattle-and-daub method in rectangular and round shapes. These structures are represented burnt wooden posts and clay plaster with impressions of bamboo and reed impressions. As regard to size, the round huts vary in diameter from 2.40 to 3.60 m and with walls that were 30 to 60 cm in thickness. The rectangular structures were larger (ranging from 3 x 3 m to 6 x 4.5 m). Regardless of shape, these housing structures were constructed in a simple manner: mud walls with wooden posts supporting a thatched roof. Inamgaon has also yielded some evidence of pit dwellings. At Nagda, a rampart made of mud and mudbricks was documented and interpreted as protection against floods from the nearby Chambal River.

 

Although these sites do not preserve a fortified stone structure with bastions as known from Balathal for example, Eran did yield a defense wall constructed of mud and having a width of 30 m at the base and a height of 6.4 m, with a moat running parallel to it. Excavations at Nagda yielded multi-roomed houses made of mud and bricks which were baked in both sunlight and in a kiln. One house contained a four-armed chulha or traditional clay-supported stove for cooking with three vessels at one time. As in the Kayatha Culture, the floors of the Malwa houses were rammed hard and are indicative of periodic repair and relaying. The excavations at Nagda yielded a drain made of mud-bricks and measuring 2.28 x 2. 13 m (1 m in height). At Navdatoli, archaeologists reported a possible sacrificial pit – squarish in shape, enclosed by mud walls and containing ash and burnt wood; a painted pot depicted a scene with woman and a lizard, possibly ‘proto- Durga’. People of the Malwa culture cultivated cereals, legumes, oil seeds and fruits and cereals included bread wheat (Triticum compactum) and rice (Oryza sativa L.). Among the pulses and legumes were lentil (Lens esculenta), black gram (Vigna mungo), green gram (Phaseolus mungo) and khesari (Lathyrus sativus). The presence of oil seed was also documented through linseed (Linum usitatissimum) and fruit is represented by ber (Zizyphus jujube). In relation to food processing and preparation, saddle querns, elongated rubbing stones and hammerstones were also recovered. Just as in other Chalcolithic cultures, the people of the Malwa culture domesticated and exploited domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goat and pig. They also hunted/caught and consumed wild animals such as barasingha (Cervus duvauceli), rat, fish, turtle and molluscs.

 

The defining ceramic of the Malwa culture was the Malwa Ware, with a buff or cream slip and painted patterns in dark brown or black pigment. The main vessel shapes were the lota, storage jars and bowls and dishes. Channel spouted bowls and pedestalled goblets from Navdatoli are particularly interesting and share some characteristics shared with select ceramic assemblages from Iran. The painted designs were mostly geometric in nature although naturalistic designs of animals, birds, dancing human figures and plants were also made. In addition, Black and Red Ware ceramics were painted in white and the Buff Ware ceramics were painted in red. As at other Chalcolithic sites, the people of the Malwa Culture utilized tools made of copper and stone. The former comprised flat celts and spearhead or sword with a mid-rib. This type of sword is also found in Iran, and combined with some of the ceramic attributes, this evidence has been collectively interpreted as reflecting an Aryan migration into India. Some sites have yielded more stone tools than others such as Navdatoli with its large amount of chalcedony blades produced using the crested guiding ridge technique as well as microliths. The Malwa Culture has also yielded beads of semi-precious stones and rings as well as copper bangles. Based on the excavated archaeological evidence, Navdatoli was a place of extensive bead manufacture. The presence of religion and a mother-goddess in the Malwa Culture has been interpreted through the recovery of terracotta female and bull figurines found at several sites. The presence of religion in this culture is also supported by a ceramic pot from the Malwa horizons at Daimabad depicting a god surrounded by animals. In fact, even a ‘proto-Shiva’, from a painted male human figure with dishevelled hair and holding a spear in his right hand. At Dangwada, the Malwa horizons yielded a possible shrine (1.2 m x 0.7 m) made on bricks and plastered with mud.

 

7.Conclusion

 

Many of the Chalcolithic technological and behavioral traditions (bullock carts, pottery, cooking methods, farming methods) have shown remarkable cultural continuity for several millennia into the present day. However, many of the traditional ways of life are disappearing fast due to the impact of modernization and demographic dynamics and hence, it is critical to also carry out ethnoarchaeological research on many of these rural communities. The study of Chalcolithic sites in the subcontinent is important to reveal the extent and nature of cultural interaction, trade networks, transitions within complex societies, and the symbolic and religions adaptations during this critical time period in human history. Future research should focus on excavating and dating more Chalcolithic sites to see how they first emerged, thrived and subsequently transformed into other regional cultures. Because so few sites have been excavated, we have very little knowledge of the environmental adaptations, cultural interactions and trade networks, for example. In addition, many of the available radiocarbon dates from previous excavations require calibration as well renewed dating agendas.

you can view video on Chalcolithic Cultures Northern and Central India

Web links

  • http://archaeology.up.nic.in/doc/ffsi_nbdf.pdf
  • http://learnindianhistory.blogspot.in/2009/11/chalcolithic-period-end-of-neolithic.html
  • http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-0023-0_34
  • http://swapsushias.blogspot.in/2013/10/chalcolithic-cultures-kayatha-ahar.html#.VhitQfmqqko
  • http://vandemataram.com/www/vindex.jsp?sno=404
  •  http://www.facts-about-india.com/chalcolithic-age.php
  • http://www.gktoday.in/chalcolithic-age-in-india/

Bibliography

  • Ansari, Z.D. and Dhavalikar, M.K. 1973. Excavations at Kayatha. Poona: Deccan College.
  • Banerjee, N.R. 1986. Nagda. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.
  • Dhavalikar, M. K., 1970. Kayatha: A New Chalcolithic culture. Indica 7(2): 85-93.
  • Dhavalikar, M.K. 1984. Toward an ecological model for Chalcolithic Cultures of Central and Western India. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3(33): 133-158.
  • Dhavalikar, M.K. 2007. The Aryans – Myth and archaeology. New Delhi: Munshiram Manohar Publications, Ltd.
  • Dhavalikar, M.K., Sankalia, H.D., Ansari, Z.D. 1988. Excavations at Inamgaon. Pune: Deccan College and Postgraduate Research Institute.
  • Dibyopama, A. 2010. Site Catchment Analysis of Balathal. Ancient Asia 2:47-57
  • utta, A. 2006. A critical review of the economy of the Chalcolithic people of Inamgaon. Ancient Asia (1): 123-137.
  • Gogte, V. D. 1996. Chalcolithic Balathal: a trading center as revealed by the XRD study of the pottery.
  • Man and Environment XXI (I): 98-100.
  •  Indian Archaeology – A Review. 1958-59. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.
  • Meena, B.R. and Alok Tripathy. 2000. Excavation at Ojiyana. Puratattva 30.
  •  Meena, B.R. and Alok Tripathy. 2001. Further Excavation at Ojiyana. Puratattva 31.
  • Misra, V.N. 2001. Prehistoric human colonization of India. Journal of Bioscience 26(4): 491-531.
  • Misra, V.N. 2005. Radiocarbon chronology of Balathal, District Udaipur. Man and Environment 30: 54– 61.
  • Misra, V.N. 2006. A gazeteer of archaeological sites in Rajasthan (from Palaeolithic to Early Historic).
  • Man and Environment XXXI(1): 48-96.
  • Misra, V.N. 2008. Rajasthan – Prehistoric and Early Historic foundations. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.
  • Misra, A. 2008. Beyond Pots and Pans: A study of Chalcolithic Balathal. Bhopal and New Delhi: IGRMS and Aryan Book International
  • Misra, V.N., Shinde, V.S., Mohanty, R.K., Dalal, K. Mishra, A. Pandey, L. and Kharakwal, J. 1995. Excavations at Balathal: their contribution to the Chalcolithic and Iron Age cultures of Mewar, Rajasthan, Man and Environment XX (1): 5780.
  • Misra, V.N., Shinde, V.S., Mohanty, R.K., Pandey, L. and Kharakwal, J. 1997 Excavations at Balathal, Udaipur district, Rajasthan (1995-1997), with special reference to Chalcolithic architecture, Man and Environment XX (2): 3559.
  • Morrison, K. 2007. Foragers and forager-traders in South Asian worlds: Some thoughts from the last 10,000 years. In M.D. Petraglia and B. Allchin (Eds.), The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia, pp. 321–339
  • Pandey, S. K. 1976. Eran: A reassessment of the Chalcolithic and Iron Age. Prachya Pratibha IV(2): 54-61.
  • Possehl, G. 2002. The Indus Civilization: a Contemporary Perspective. Lanham, MD.: Alta Mira Press.
  • Possehl, G., Kennedy, K.A.R. 1979. Hunter-gatherer/agriculturalist exchange in prehistory: an Indian example. Current Anthropology 20(3): 592-593.
  • Ratnagar, S., 1997. Hunter-gatherer and early agriculturalist: archaeological evidence for contact. In:Nathan, D. (Ed.), From Tribe to Caste. Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla, pp. 117–135.
  • Robbins, G., Mushrif-Tripathy, V., Misra, V.N., Mohanty, R.K., Shinde, V.S., Gray, K.M., Schug, MD.
  • Ancient Skeletal Evidence for Leprosy in India (2000 B.C.). Plos One 4 (5): e5669.
  • Sankalia, H.D. 1964. Middle stone age culture in India and Pakistan, Science 146 (3642): 365-376.
  • Sankalia, H.D. 1974. Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan. Poona: Deccan College.
  • Sankalia, H.D., Deo, S.B. and Ansari, Z.D. 1969. Excavations at Ahar (Tambavati). Poona: Deccan College
  • Sankalia, H.D., Deo, S.B and Ansari, Z.D. 1971. Chalcolithic Navdatoli (1957-59). Poona: Deccan College.
  • Sankalia, H.D., Subbarao, B and Deo, S.B. 1958 Excavations at Maheshwar and Navdatoli (1952-53).
  • Poona: Deccan College.
  • Sarkar, A. 2011a. A Study of Development of the Ahar Culture in south-east Rajasthan, India from a ceramic point of view. Ancient Asia 3: 11-35.
  • Sarkar, A. 2011b. Chalcolithic and modern potting at Gilund, Rajasthan: a cautionary tale in Antiquity 85:994-1007.
  • Shinde, V. 1990. The Malwa Culture in Maharashtra: A study of subsistence and settlement patterns. Man and Environment XV(2): 53-60.
  • Shinde, V. 2000. The origin and Development of the Chalcolithic in Central India. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 19: 115–124.Shinde, V. 2002. Emergence, development and spread of agricultural communities in South Asia, in Y.
  • Yasuda, Ed. Origins of Pottery and Agriculture. Singapore: Roli Books and Lustre Press.
  • Shinde, V., Sinha-Deshpande, S. and G.L. Possehl. 2002. The Ceramic Assemblages in Protohistoric Mewar (Rajasthan) with Special Reference to Gilund and Balathal. Puratattva 32: 5-24.
  • Shinde, V., Raczek, T.P. and G.L. Posshel. (Eds.) 2014. Excavations at Gilund: The artifacts and other studies. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Shinde, V., Sinha-Deshpande, S. 2015. Crafts and Technologies of the Chalcolithic People of South Asia: An Overview. Indian Journal of History of Science 50(1): 42-54.
  • Sinha -Deshpande, S., Shinde, V. 2006. Development of Urbanization in the Mewar Region of Rajasthan, India in the Middle of Third Millenium BC. Ancient Asia 1: 103-122.
  • Stiles, D. 1993. Hunter -Gatherer Trade in Wild Forest Products in the Early Centuries A.D. with the Port of Broach, India. Asian Perspectives 32(2): 153-176