23 Social Integration of Transgender

M. Jayamala

Objectives

• To understand about transgender and their Gender Identity
• To know the social discriminations and initiatives taken for social integration of transgender

Transgender

The term transgender has been derived from the Latin word ‘trans’ and the English word ‘gender’. No particular form of sexual orientation is meant through the term transgender. The way they behave and act differs from the ‘normative’ gender role of men and women. Leading a life as a transgender is far from easy because such people can be neither categorized as male nor female and this deviation is “unacceptable” to society’s vast majority. Trying to eke out a dignified living is even worse (Sathasivam, 2011). The term is used broadly “to describe people who transcend the conventional boundaries of gender, irrespective of physical status or sexual orientation” (Feldman & Bockting, 2003). The term is used to refer to groups such as transsexuals, cross-dressers, drag queens, drag kings, and gender queers, as well as myriad other members of the “gender community” ( Kidd and Witten, 2007; Sims, 2007; Witten and Eyler, 1999; Witten and Eyler, 2007; Witten, 2003). However, it is important to understand that these terms are dynamic in location, cultural interpretation and context, in time, and in personal/political meaning, and needs a careful application. UNDP, 2010, generalized that Transgender is an umbrella term for persons whose gender identity, gender expression, or behavior does not conform to that typically associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth.

Sex and Gender

Transgender is associated with both the term sex and gender. The term sex is assigned at birth, refers to one’s biological status as either male or female, and is associated primarily with physical attributes such as chromosomes, hormone prevalence, and external and internal anatomy. Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for boys and men or girls and women. These influence theways that people act, interact, and feel about themselves. While aspects of biological sex are similar across different cultures, aspects of gender may differ. Various conditions that lead to a typical development of physical sex characteristics are collectively referred to as intersex conditions (American Psychological Association Fact Sheet, 2011).

Gender Transition of Transsexuals

Transitioning from one gender to another is a complex process and may involve transition to a gender that is neither traditionally male nor female. People who transition often start by expressing their preferred gender in situations where they feel safe. They typically work up to living full time as members of their preferred gender by making many changes a little at a time. While there is no “right” way to transition genders, there are some common social changes transgender people experience that may involve one or more of the following: adopting the appearance of the desired sex through changes in clothing and grooming, adopting a new name, changing sex designation on identity documents (if possible), using hormone therapy treatment, and/or undergoing medical procedures that modify their body to confirm with their gender identity. Every transgender person’s process or transition differs. Because of this, many factors may determine how the individual wishes to live and express their gender identity.

Thus, Trans sexual are those persons whose gender identity is different from their assigned sex. Sometimes, they choose to alter through medical intervention, including sexual reassignment surgery (SRS) in order to make their bodies congruent with their gender identity and to live fully in their self-identified gender. At the same time, there are other persons who choose to live and appear in their self identified gender but do not want to or do not have the financial means to undergo SRS. They are known as male to female or female to male transsexual persons (APA Fact Sheet, 2011).

Transgender Identity

Transgender people experience their transgender identity in a variety of ways and may become aware of their transgender identity at any age. Some can trace their transgender identities and feelings back to their earliest memories. They may have vague feelings of “not fitting in” with people of their assigned sex or specific wishes to be something other than their assigned sex. Others become aware of their transgender identities or begin to explore and experience gender-nonconforming attitudes and behaviors during adolescence or much later in life. Some embrace their transgender feelings, while others struggle with feelings of shame or confusion. Those who transition later in life may have struggled to fit in adequately as their assigned sex only to later face dissatisfaction with their lives. Some transgender people, transsexuals in particular, experience intense dissatisfaction with their sex assigned at birth, physical sex characteristics, or the gender role associated with that sex. These individuals often seek gender-affirming treatments.

Categories or Types of Transgender People

Many identities fall under the transgender umbrella. The term transsexual refers to people whose gender identity is different from their assigned sex. Often, transsexual people alter or wish to alter their bodies through hormones, surgery, and other means to make their bodies as congruent as possible with their gender identities (APA, 2011). This process of transition through medical intervention is often referred to as sex or gender reassignment, but more recently is also referred to as gender affirmation. People who were assigned female, but identify and live as male and alter or wish to alter their bodies through medical intervention to more closely resemble their gender identity are known as transsexual men or transmen (also known as female-to-male or FTM). Conversely, people who were assigned male, but identify and live as female and alter or wish to alter their bodies through medical intervention to more closely resemble their gender identity are known as transsexual women or transwomen (also known as male-to-female or MTF).

People who cross-dress wear clothing that is traditionally or stereotypically worn by another gender in their culture. They vary in how completely they cross-dress, from one article of clothing to fully cross-dressing. Those who cross-dress are usually comfortable with their assigned sex and do not wish to change it. Cross-dressing is a form of gender expression and is not necessarily tied to erotic activity. Cross-dressing is not indicative of sexual orientation. The degree of societal acceptance for cross-dressing varies for males and females. In some cultures, one gender may be given more latitude than another for wearing clothing associated with a different gender.

The term drag queens generally refer to men who dress as women for the purpose of entertaining others at bars, clubs, or other events. The term drag kings refer to women who dress as men for the purpose of entertaining others at bars, clubs, or other events.

Gender queer is a term that some people use who identifies their gender as falling outside the binary constructs of “male” and “female.” They may define their gender as falling somewhere on a continuum between male and female, or they may define it as wholly different from these terms. They may also request that pronouns be used to refer to them that are neither masculine nor feminine, such as “zie” instead of “he” or “she,” or “hir” instead of “his” or “her.” Some gender queer people do not identify as transgender.

Other categories of transgender people identified are androgynous, multi gendered, gender nonconforming, third gender, and two-spirit people. Exact definitions of these terms vary from person to person and may change over time, but often include a sense of blending or alternating genders. Some people who use these terms to describe themselves see traditional, binary concepts of gender as restrictive.

State of Transgender Persons: A Global Scenario

Irrespective to the UN declaration of promoting and protection of transgender persons; transgender people of racial, ethnic, or religious minority backgrounds; transgender people of lower socioeconomic statuses; transgender people with disabilities; transgender youth; transgender elderly; and others experience discrimination in all most all parts of the world.

Transgender people confront institutionalized discrimination all over the world in areas of everyday life such as health care, housing, employment, education, and legal recognition in their true gender. Experiencing discrimination may cause significant amounts of psychological stress, often leaving transgender individuals to wonder whether they were discriminated against because of their gender identity or gender expression, another socio cultural identity, or some combination of all of these.

Council of Europe, Commissioner for Human Rights, 2009 reports that in a number of countries, the problem starts at the level of official recognition. Transgender persons who no longer identify with their birth gender, seek changes to their birth certificates, passports and other documents, but often encounter difficulties. This in turn leads to a number of very concrete problems in daily life when showing one’s ID papers – in the bank or the post office, when using a credit card, or crossing borders. In the United Kingdom, male to female transgender persons have been struggling to get their gender status accepted for the purpose of pension benefits.

Inclusion of Transgender Persons

Several countries worldwide allow individuals to register as a third gender. Nepal’s 2011 census was the first national census in the world to allow people to register as a gender other than male or female. In November, 2013, Germany became the first European country to allow parents of babies born with no clearly-defined gender characteristics to leave the ‘male/female’ field on birth certificates blank, creating a ‘third sex’ category in the public register. As adults, German intersex individuals will soon be spared the necessity to conform to the conventional gender framework, as the current two options of entering either ‘M’ for male or ‘F’ for female in passport gender fields, will be officially supplemented by a third option: ‘X’. This kind of three-gender-choice system was introduced in Australia in 2011, New Zealand followed suit in 2012 (RT 2014).

In some European countries, it has now become possible to correct official records and obtain a new first name. However, in other countries a change of birth certificate is simply not allowed. In a large number of Council of Europe Member States, such changes are permitted only upon proof that the transgender person has been sterilized or declared infertile, or has undergone other medical procedures, such as gender reassignment surgery or hormone treatment.

In the Countries of United States, United Nations Federal Government Policy recommends to treat all of its employees with dignity and respect and to provide a workplace that is free from discrimination whether that discrimination is based on race, color, religion, sex (including gender identity or pregnancy), national origin, disability, political affiliation, marital status, membership in an employee organization, age, sexual orientation, or other non-merit factors.

Hijras/ Transgender in India

The Hindu 2011, reports that India has an estimated 500,000 transgender people known as Hijras, who can be eunuchs, intersex or transgender, have been part of South Asia’s culture for thousands of years. Eunuchs are celebrated in sacred Hindu texts such as the Mahabharata and the Kama Sutra. The concept of “tritiyaprakriti” or “napumsaka” has been an integral part of the Hindu mythology, folklore, epic and early Vedic and Purana literatures. These terms has been used to denote absence of procreative capability, thereby signifying difference from masculine and feminine markers. Thus, some of the early texts extensively dealt with issues of sexuality and the notion of third gender was an established idea therein. Indian culture and history has representations of transgender individuals even in age old scripts and sculptures. In fact, the Jain texts even mention the concept of “psychological sex”, which emphasized the psychological make-up of an individual, distinct from their sexual characteristics.

Positions in Mughal Rule

Hijras played a prominent role in the royal courts of the Islamic world, especially in the Ottoman empires and the Mughal rule in the Medieval India. They rose to eminent positions as political advisors, administrators, generals as well as guardians of the harems. Hijras were considered clever, trustworthy and fiercely loyal and had free access to all spaces and sections of population, thereby playing a crucial role in the politics of empire building in the Mughal era. The Hijras also occupied high positions in the Islamic religious institutions, especially in guarding the holy places of Mecca and Medina.

Criminalization under the Colonial Rule

With the onset of colonial rule from the 18th century onwards, the situation changed drastically. Accounts of early European travelers showed that they were repulsed by the sight of Hijras and could not understand why they were given so much respect in the royal courts and other institutions. In the second half of the 19th century, the British colonial administration actively sought to criminalise the Hijra community and to deny them the civil rights. Hijras were considered to be distinct caste or tribe in different parts of India by the colonial administration. Their social mores and gender roles were considered deviant (Reddy, 2006).

Transgender Identities that Exist in India

1. Hijras

Hijras are biological males who reject their ‘masculine’ identity in due course of time to identify either as women, or “not-men”, or “in-between man and woman”, or “neither man nor woman”. Hijras can be considered as the western equivalent of transgender/transsexual (male-to-female) persons but Hijras have a long tradition/culture and have strong social ties formalized through a ritual called “reet” (becoming a member of Hijra community). There are regional variations in the use of terms referred to Hijras, for example, Kinnars (Delhi) and Aravanis (Tamil Nadu). Hijras may earn through their traditional work: ‘Badhai’ (clapping their hands and asking for alms), blessing new-born babies, or dancing in ceremonies. Some proportion of Hijras engage in sex work for lack of other job opportunities, while some may be self-employed or work for non-governmental organizations(UNDP, 2010) .

2. Aravanis/ ‘Thirunangi’

Hijras in Tamil Nadu identify as “Aravani”. The term aravani is considered a dignified term for transgender in Tamil Nadu as compared to derogatory terms such as ali, ombodh, pottai, kattawandi etc. Tamil Nadu Aravanigal Welfare Board, a state government’s initiative under the Department of Social Welfare defines Aravanis as biological males who self-identify themselves as a woman trapped in a male’s body. Some Aravani activists want the public and media to use the term ‘Thirunangi’ to refer to Aravanis.

3. Kothi

Kothis are defined as a heterogeneous group. ‘Kothis’ can be described as biological males who show varying degrees of ‘femininity’ – which may be situational. Some proportions of Kothis have bisexual behavior and get married to a woman. Kothis are generally of lower socioeconomic status and some engage in sex work for survival. Some proportion of Hijra-identified people may also identify themselves as ‘Kothis’. But not all Kothi identified people identify themselves as transgender or Hijras. There are three types of transgender -Nirvan Kothi, who have been operated upon; Aqua Kothi, who have not undergone sex change operations; and cross-dressers.

4. Jogtas/Jogappas

Jogtas or Jopgappas are those persons who are dedicated to and serve as a servant of Goddess Renukha Devi (Yellamma) whose temples are present in Maharashtra and Karnataka. ‘Jogta’ refers to male servant of that Goddess and ‘Jogti’ refers to female servant (who is also sometimes referred to as ‘Devadasi’). One can become a ‘Jogta’ (or Jogti) if it is part of their family tradition or if one finds a ‘Guru’ (or ‘Pujari’) who accepts him/her as a ‘Chela’ or ‘Shishya’ (disciple). Sometimes, the term ‘Jogti Hijras’ is used to denote those male-to-female transgender persons who are devotees/servants of Goddess Renukha Devi and who are also in the Hijra communities. This term is used to differentiate them from ‘Jogtas’ who are heterosexuals and who may or may not dress in woman’s attire when they worship the Goddess. Also, that term differentiates them from ‘Jogtis’ who are biological females dedicated to the Goddess. However, ‘Jogti Hijras’ may refer to themselves as ‘Jogti’ (female pronoun) or Hijras, and even sometimes as ‘Jogtas’ (Chakrapani et.al, 2007).

5. Shiv-Shakthis

Shiv-Shakthis are considered as males considered close to goddess and have feminine gender expression. Usually, Shiv-Shakthis are inducted into the Shiv-Shakti community by senior gurus, who teach them the norms, customs, and rituals to be observed by them. In a ceremony, Shiv- Shakthis are married to a sword that represents male power or Shiva (deity). Shiv-Shaktis thus become the bride of the sword. Occasionally, Shiv-Shakthis cross-dress and use accessories and ornaments that are generally/socially meant for women. Most people in this community belong to lower socio-economic status and earn for their living as astrologers, soothsayers and spiritual healers.

Koovagam Festival in India

Koovagam festival is the festival celebrated by the transgender people in Tamil Nadu. Koovagam festival is held every year during a “Chitra Poornima” (full moon day in the month of April) to worship the festival of Lord Aravan. The temple of Lord Aravan is situated in Koovagam village in Ulundurpettai taluk, Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu. Hijras/aravanis/ transgender effeminate gay men, cross-dressers and many people from the queer community across India and many Asian countries visit Villupuram town and the temple during the festival season. The act of hijras worshipping and marrying Lord Aravan created Aravani identity. The term aravani literally means one who worships ‘Lord Aravan’.

Transgender people regard Koothandavar, the principal deity of the temple, as their husband and worship him (shodhgang), Koothandavar is a common name given to Aravan, son of Pandava prince Arjuna appears in the epic Mahabharata. They hold the festival at the temple every year to commemorate the sacrifice of Aravan. According to folklore, a human sacrifice was required to win the Mahabharata war. The male required for sacrifice was expected to possess 36 male characteristics (known as Samudrika Lakshinam). Only Arjun and his son Lord Aravan had these characteristics. Arjun was the main hero in the war and hence Lord Aravan was chosen for the sacrifice. Lord Aravan was a bachelor and he expressed his desire to marry before his death. No king was ready to give his daughter knowing the fact that he will die the next day after his sacrifice. In order to ease the situation, Lord Krishna took form of a woman and married Lord Aravan. The next day, Lord Aravan was sacrificed. After his death Lord Krishna (as a woman) underwent the ritual of attaining widowhood. Aravanis consider themselves descendents and forms of Lord Krishna and hence, they visit Koovagam temple every year to marry Lord Aravan. Aravanis mourn and weep the death of their husband Lord Aravan when he is sacrificed the next day, and they also undergo the rituals of attaining widowhood.

The festival lasts for 16 days symbolizing the war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. The festival, which will conclude on May will feature beauty pageants for the transgender people hosted by different non-government organizations with the support of the Tamil Nadu government. On the penultimate day, transgender people will follow all elements of the centuries old ritual to get their thalis (mangalsutra) tied by the temple priests declaring Aravan as their husband. The wedding will be followed by wild celebrations until dawn. The presiding deity of the temple will be taken in a procession on the last day of the festival. The festival will conclude with the breaking of the thalis and bangles as the transgender people mourn the death of Aravan (Krishna and Gupta, 2002; Mahalingam, 2003; Chakravorthy, 2007).

Social Exclusion of Transgender Persons in India

UNDP 2010 reported that in general, Indians tolerate, accept, and respect a wide range of differences in cultures, religions, languages, and customs. Despite Indian society’s general climate of acceptance and tolerance, there appears to be limited public knowledge and understanding of the transgender persons. The uphill struggle for the transgender persons first begins with finding acceptance within the family. Once the truth is out, they are usually forced to leave the family home. Yet the society they must take refuge in is equally as unwelcoming.

Exclusion from Family and Society

Most of the families not accept if their child’s behaviour in ways that are considered inappropriate to the expected gender role as male or female. Thereby, they are the victims of humiliation and discrimination that happens to them in various spheres of their life caused by the society. Transgender communities face a variety of social security issues. Since most Hijras run away or evicted from home, they do not expect support from their biological family in the long run. Subsequently, they face a lot of challenges especially when they are not in a position to earn (or has decreased earning capacity) due to health concerns, lack of employment opportunities, or old age. Lack of livelihood options is a key reason for a significant proportion of transgender people to choose or continue to be in sex work.

Political Participation

Transgender people now have the option to vote as a woman or ‘other’. Tamil Nadu, which has some of the most progressive measures for the transgender community in the country. The Tamil Nadu High Court has ordered the government to ensure wide publicity through electronic and print media that transgender are entitled to get registered in electoral rolls and the education department has created a third category for admission in educational institutions. The government has also provided for small loans and training for transgender self-help groups.

Transgender People Identified as a Separate Sex in India

Supreme Court of India ruled that transgender people would be recognized on official documents under a separate “third gender” category. Until the law was passed, transgender people had to register as either male or female. The law is actually more wide-ranging than this because it means anyone can change their gender on official documents to male, female or transgender depending on their self-identity. The term self-identity is crucial here: transgender people in India don’t need to undergo any surgical or medical intervention to change their gender on official documents.

The Office of the Registrar General of India (RGI), said based on the recommendations by the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) that transgender would be given separate code i.e. ‘3’ in the Census 2011. The TAC had proposed that during census, males would be given code one, females two and for transgendered it would be ‘code three’ which has been accepted by the Government. But this could be reported only when the transgender wishes other than the code-1 and code-2 and thus, left at the choice of respondents to opt for code-3.

In the latest findings from census data, it has now been calculated that India currently has 490,000 citizens who identify as transgender. What is interesting to note is the fact that 55,000 respondents were in the age 0-6, signifying how parents are willing to reveal the gender identity of their children, unthought-of it till a while ago. The figure of 490,000 is based on the number of people who have self-identified as transgender, or those children whose parents identified them as transgender, hence giving scope for the speculation that the actual numbers may be a lot more.

Government of Tamil Nadu Recognized Transgender as a Third Sex

Aravanis in Tamil Nadu appear in feminine attire, dress in saris, give themselves feminine names, and refer to each other in female kinship terms. After becoming Aravanis, most of them leave their natal homes, and join the Aravani community. They are ignored by their natal family members, especially their male kin, and not offer material as well as emotional support to each other. Aravanis are more than cross dressers, many go through a sex change operation or take hormones to become a “perfect” female, and mostly become sex workers. They too have the practice of maintaining a monogamous relationship with a man they call a husband.

Most of these Transgender persons (Hijras/Aravani) are poorly educated; they discontinue their schooling due to the constant tease/bully by their peers. Moreover, they had no separate identity and could enroll in colleges only as males. Thereby, they often went through the trauma of being forced to study in a men’s college, where they are routinely harassed. In tune with the Tamil Nadu governor’s address in the legislative assembly in January 2008, expressing concern about the welfare of transgender and announcing a number of welfare measures like the issue of ration cards, free surgeries in government hospitals and the establishment of a welfare board (UNDP, 2010). For the first time in the country, a government order has been issued by an education department of a state government creating a third gender category for admission in educational institutions. Thereby, Government and aided colleges will have to admit transgender (‘hijras/aravanis/alis’) and they will share 30 per cent of the seats reserved for women. A newly-designed application form for the undergraduate courses will include transgender as a separate category, thus permitting these students to join any college of their choice- co-educational, men’s or women’s colleges.(Trans talk, 2009).

In December 2006, the Tamil Nadu Government passed an order saying that no educational institution or Government Organization could discriminate against someone on the basis of them being a transgendered person. Government is issuing separate food ration card/family card for the transgendered people – A pioneering initiation for helping this marginalized community. This has proved to be one of the major social security because it is issued to every individual transgender without demanding for the names of the family members or the details about their earlier family card.

Transgender people in Tamil Nadu in Chennai have now been granted the choice to choose “T” instead of the standard male and female. This now allows the estimated 40,000 people who identify as transgender in Chennai to legally be in a slightly better position as the government rolls out the new plans. Transgender people are now able to identify as a third gender when applying for ration cards and welfare schemes without emotional trauma or embarrassment (Starr, 2008)

Some of the other State governments Welfare measures are;

• Transgender Welfare Polices
• State wide census of the Aravani Population
• Transgender Identity Card
• Transgender Kalaignar Health Scheme
•  Transgender Voter Identity Card
• Transgender Educational Assistance
•  Transgender Family Card
• Transgender Free Sex Reassignment Surgery
• Transgender Integrated Housing Facility
• Senior Transgender Financial Assistance
• Transgender Special Self Help Group
• Loans for Self Employment and Employment Assistance
• Temporary Housing Facility
• Transgender Kurai Theerkum Kootam

1.19 Tamil Nadu Aravanigal (Transgender women) Welfare Board

To address the issues faced by transgender people, the government of Tamil Nadu (a state in South India) established a Transgender Welfare Board in April 2008. Social Welfare Minister serves as the President of the Board. This effort is touted to be the first in India and even in the world appointed to the board are the Secretaries of Law and Finance and senior officials heading various agencies like Women’s Commission, police and State Human Rights and Social Justice Commissions. In addition, eight transgender people have been included as non-official members of the board. It is the first of its kind by any state government in India. Social Welfare Minister serves as the president of the board. This effort is touted to be the first in India and even in the whole Asia-pacific region.

The board would potentially address a variety of concerns of transgender people that includes education, income generation and other social security measures. As a first step, the board has conducted the enumeration of Transgender populations in all 32 districts of Tamil Nadu and in some places identity cards – with the gender identity ‘3’ mentioned as “Aravani” – are being issued (UNDP, 2010).

Conclusion

Transgender culture has been part of the Indian community for centuries. Unfortunately, they face extreme discrimination in health, housing, education, employment, law, etc. Facing severe harassment, with little or no opportunity for conventional jobs, most of them earn an income by performing at Hindu religious ceremonies and celebrations, or by begging and also in sex work. It is not only the issue of social exclusion but also the livelihood issues of transgender that need to be focused. Indisputably the most marginalized and ostracized community, transgender need special quotas if they are to emerge from the shadows.

Today there seem to be a alter in the traditional Indian mindset, there seems to be both subtle and appreciable changes taking place in terms of how this group are being treated and recognized by mainstream society. Over the last few years, India has seen improvement in the lives of transgender women, there are transgender fashion models and transgender television presenters. Yet these developments come after years of crushing social stigmatization, abuse and general disrespect from the wider community. Unless they are able to integrate with the mainstream social order and share experiences with the general community, the current stigma will not disappear. Being a visible minority and a part of India’s backward group of people, there are attempts to get them into the other backward classes (OBC) group. Tamil Nadu has shown the way by taking the first step in this direction. The existing new laws alone won’t change the discrimination that many transgender people face. They need to be included in mainstream of the society.