1 Gender Differences, Stereotypes and Bias

1.1.2 INTRODUCTION:

Sex and gender are present anytime, anyplace, anywhere – without boundaries. Sex and gender are important aspects of who we are, what we do, how we think, why we act/react in a particular way. In spite of the presence of sex and gender in every life events, these are rarely viewed and questioned in a rational and sensitive manner.

It is widely believed that the terms “gender” and “sex” are interchangeable. This understanding has become so common, that we unilaterally accept, than rarely question sex and gender. Yet, sex and gender are different.

Sex is naturally related to one’s physical anatomy and biological role of procreation. Whereas, gender is ‘socially constructed’. In other words, the concept of gender is evolved in and shaped by a society; in its particular context, space and time. Therefore, the social construction of gender differs from society to society. A more or less egalitarian society encourages more or less equal gender relations between men and women. While a patriarchal or male dominated society, as found in India, discourages equality and encourages unequal gender relations in society, whereby men hold higher position and status within society.

Sexologist John William Money was the first to coin the term ‘gender role’ in 1955. Thus, the term ‘gender’ is derived from his expression of ‘gender role’, which means girl or woman, boy or man, perform different actions and response differently depending on their social status, that includes but not restricted to their sexuality. ‘Gender’ denotes whether an individual is a woman or man depending on social factors like- social role, position, behaviour or identity. Psychologist Robert Stoller (1968) used the terms ‘sex’ for biological traits and ‘gender’ for femininity and masculinity characteristics of a person. According to the feminists, the distinction between sex and gender is meaningful as it counters ‘biological determinism’ of sex by ‘social determinism’ of gender (Beauvoir, 1972). The famous claims by the great feminist Simone de Beauvoir was that woman is not born, rather she becomes a woman after her birth with female sex organs, and that “social discrimination produces in women moral and intellectual effects so profound that they appear to be caused by nature” (Beauvoir, 1972 [original 1949]:18). For Gayle Rubin, ‘sex-gender system’ defines “a set of arrangements by which the biological raw material of human sex and procreation is shaped by human, social intervention” (1975:165). Since, gender is social interpretation of sex, so people’s sex and gender usually match with each other, but it is not the case for transsexuals and therefore they constitute the ‘third gender’.

‘Gender’ is a social construct (Nicholson, 1994; Haslanger, 1995), which is constantly guarded and watched by each society. Gender has evolved from socially prescribed norms. Unbelievably, society assigns a gender (masculine or feminine) for everything and anything, whether it is a role, toy, colour, cloth, lifestyle, habit, thinking, doing, traditional practice, cultural taboo, … and the list can be endless. Gender is an aspect of socialisation – a lifelong process for being a member of the society. We are born with a ‘sex’ (male or female or trans). But ‘gender’ is actually taught and confirmed to us, from the moment we are born till we die, under the category of ‘sex’ in which we belong. Gender expectations and stereotypes (or fixed images) are reminded to us by society in everyday life. Gender messages on childhood, family, education, peers, culture, community, religion, media, etc., are continuously offered to us to influence and to shape our understanding of this core aspect of our identity. Unfortunately, most of us respond positively to these socially constructed gender differences, stereotypes and biases in order to conform to the socially prescriptive gender identity. Therefore, in no society, do women enjoy the same opportunities as men.

Gender is a process and structure as well as it is a stratification system. It is a process due to the fact that day to day interactions and daily rituals reinforce gender as opposites between men and women. It is a stratification system by recognising men as control of power and with superior status in society, while women are treated as ‘Other’. It is a structure of social stratification, since it divides work in the home and workplace for economic production. It legitimises power and authority of men and regulates sexuality and emotional life of the women in society.

1.1.3 LEARNING OUTCOME / OBJECTIVE:

1. Introduce biological-sexual and socio-cultural differences between men and women

2. Point out gender-based stereotypes of identity and roles created by society

3. Develop understanding of inequality between sexes in reality

1.1.4 TOPIC 1: Gender Difference

1.1.4.1 Gender

Gender is a wide set of characteristics distinguishing male and female. It is extended from biological differences (i.e., sex) to social roles or gender identity. It is referred specifically to socially sanctioned and institutionalised differences such as gender roles. According to World Health Organization (WHO), gender refers to the socially constructed – roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes – that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. It is represented in some cultures (like in India) as distinct gender-related social attitudes, roles, education, and training; that can be considered markedly different from male to female. It is commonly accepted social role and gender identity of a man and woman as a ‘breadwinner’ versus ‘homemaker’.

We have roles based on our ‘gender’ and its hierarchy of status in the society. Gender based role identifies the social relations between men and women, which are socially constructed and socially sanctioned. However, gender based roles are dynamic and change over time with changing needs and interests of our society. Moreover, ‘gender’ gives us an identity which represents how we feel about ourselves and express our gender appearances and gender roles through clothing, behaviour, and personality, daily activities, lifestyle, and so on. We develop these feelings about our own gender identity as early as age two or three and continue lifelong. We rarely deviate from so-called gender identity and role given to us by our society. Gender is therefore a means of social control.

1.1.4.2 Gender Difference

Feminists argue against biological determinism and strongly believe that ‘gender differences’ result from cultural practices and social expectations. According to Kate Millett, gender differences are “essentially cultural, rather than biological bases” (1971:28–9). Gender differences are observed in all aspects of thoughts, perceptions, behaviour, and practices of men and women. However, some differences are grounded realities, but some are abstracted realities, yet strong enough to display as if real. All over the world, whether it is a developed, developing or under-developed nation; men and women look and behave differently. They are biologically different from one another due to their reproductive roles for the survival of human species and progress of (hu)mankind. They are artificially differentiated from one another through the means of physical appearances, hairstyles, cloths, interests, characteristics, language, speech, gestures, roles, activities, lifestyles, stereotypes, etc. Gender differences are therefore significantly present in all around and all the way from undeniable facts of human society to imaginary fictions in human mind. Irrespective of the development of societies, there is a widespread gender-based segregations (or separations) within society, which prevents effective understanding of the other gender (opposite sex) and mutual communication between both genders.

Gender difference is most felt in ‘personal appearance and attitude’ towards oneself as a man or a woman, which is indeed influenced by the norms and values in our society. Gender difference is also greater in ‘education’ attainment and field of study chosen by boys and girls, men and women. Gender difference is significantly felt in types of ‘work’ practiced and wages received by men and women. Finally, gender difference is found lowest when it is for ‘family’ – men take care of financial security of the family and women take care of children and elders. However, women’s domestic responsibilities and time spent for household needs and requirements are higher than men. Therefore, it can be argued that gender difference is highest at family level as women’s reproductive and productive role is higher than men family members.

Hence, our beliefs on real or fictitious gender differences affect our judgements, influence our opinions, and restrict our relations with the other gender. This imposes limitations on co-existence of men and women members in the society. This in turn leads to misconceptions and misunderstandings of each other. Gender is a socialisation process with “the sum total of the parents’, the peers’, and the culture’s notions of what is appropriate to each gender by way of temperament, character, interests, status, worth, gesture, and expression” (Millett, 1971:31). Due to this gender socialisation, we have keen interest to find and observe gender differences in society. This inherently wrong attitude makes us blind to the similarities of men and women. Due to our own prejudices, we are easily fooled into seeing dissimilarities between men and women that do not actually exist in reality. Being ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’ is considered to be the gender of a person. It is an act of personal choice – the way a person prefers to portray and behave. Masculinity (manhood) is a set of qualities, characteristics and roles generally considered typical of, or appropriate to, boys and men. Femininity (also called womanliness or womanhood) is a set of attributes, behaviours and roles generally associated with girls and women. Masculinity and femininity are developed by gender based socialisation process. According to Chodorow, childhood gender socialisation unconsciously yet continuously builds and supports the ego boundaries of femininity and masculinity, thus producing feminine and masculine persons (1995:202–206). His perspective is rooted in Freudian psychoanalytic theory. However, gender is not uniform, we all have both feminine and masculine traits, to some degree, in some balance. Therefore, gender difference becomes gender diversity when seen from positive angle. On the other hand, gender difference becomes gender discrimination when perceived from negative point of view.

1.1.5 TOPIC 2:Gender Stereotype

Gender socialisation leads to gender stereotypes. Gendered personalities are manifested into common gender stereotypical behaviours. Therefore, gender stereotypes include generalisations and oversimplifications, ideals and labelling of gender based differences, characteristics, roles, relations, attitudes, and attributes of individuals and/or groups in relation to a particular society. Overt (and may not be precise) form of gender socialisation process through gender stereotypical clothes and colours, toys and games, role-taking and role-playing; intentionally or un-intentionally tend to reinforce socially ‘appropriate’ behaviours in children (Kimmel, 2000); which in turn form an important gender identity in adulthood.

Gender stereotypes are apparently considered as negative, but it may be positive as well. But most of the times, gender stereotypes do not communicate truth or correct information regarding gender characteristics and verticals allowed in the society. However, gender stereotypes strongly influence the common people’s assumptions, views and judgments related to gender and society. In return, it creates a vicious cycle of negative evidences, feelings, miscommunications and contradictions – thereby perpetuating and reinforcing gender stereotypes in society. Dangers of gender stereotyping can be realised by members of the society, but still simplistic generalisations are made or commented with disregard to its negative impact on people and society, especially women, who form the ‘minority group’ and hold a lower social strata with respect to men in the society. Research and scientific evidence demonstrates that children learn gender stereotypes from watching adults in the family, in school, in play area, in public place. Therefore, gender stereotypes are passed by the ‘agents’ of gender socialisation who are the parents, teachers, peers, relatives, neighbours, community/religious/political leaders, and importantly media.

According to social learning theorists Renzetti and Curran (1992), children are not only influenced by parents and peers, but they are also keen observants of the world around them, which makes countering gender socialisation and gender stereotypes difficult during childhood as well as in adulthood.

Majority of the feminists argue for gender realism, which is a resultant of gender stereotypes, whereby all women are regarded as a group or a collective, having common condition of ‘sexual objectification’ irrespective of their caste, class, race, ethnicity and nationality (Friedan, 1963; MacKinnon, 2006; et. al.). Judith Butler (1999) critiques gender realism and holds the belief that the distinction of biological sex from social gender is unintelligible and it is none other than identity politics or power politics among two major groups of society: the men and women. Similarly Iris Young argues that gender is seriality and women form social collective. Since women’s lives and actions are organised around female bodies (menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth) and certain gender-coded objects and practices (pronouns, verbal and visual representations of gender, gender-coded artefacts and social spaces, clothes, cosmetics, tools and furniture). Therefore the unity is “not one that arises from the individuals called women” but their series of life and actions that bound them together passively (Young 1997:32).

Traditionally in India and across the world, primary stereotypic role of women is marriage and child birth and family care and to be confined in the private sphere. Stereotypic role of men is outside the four walls of household and do work away from home in the public sphere. Such male-female stereotypic role is called as ‘gender division of labour’. Gender division of labour is a stereotypic representation of the socio-cultural pattern of a society rooted in the biological differences between men and women and the respective reproductive and productive role of women versus men. Gender stereotypes also reinstates that women have to put their family first, before her ownself; in contrast to men for whom his own life and individuality should predominate family interests. Women are glorified of her ‘womanhood’ as loving, caring, nurturing, sympathetic, compassionate, forgiving, emotional, and so on. As against manhood that reflects strong, brave, authoritative, assertive, independent, career-oriented, competitive, and so on. Women are stereotyped to possess inherent beauty and sex appeal. Woman’s body is not her own, but to be dedicated for man or men in her life. Male member of the family is to be the financial provider in return of the sexual pleasure derived from women in his life. Men are regarded as initiator and taker of sex, whereas women are giver of body and sex. These overt stereotypes prove harmful, curtailing individual expression and creativity, personal and professional growth, and restricting representation of complementary and integrative qualities of both genders.

Moreover, natural growth of crime and violence against women in India is due to the fact of wide publicity of grossly mistaken gender-based beliefs and perceptions in society. Moreover, those men and women who do not fit into the socially accepted image of female or male gender stereotypes are often regarded as violators of social order and social outcasts and are rejected by their own family. This leads to a gender-biased social environment. However, since 1960s, powerful sociopolitical force and resultant feminist movement and women’s liberation movement have been since fighting hard to challenge conventional gender roles and stereotypes; and ever since struggling to redefine the traditional gender stereotypes into modern context of liberty, fraternity and equality.

1.1.6 TOPIC 3: Gender Bias

In public spheres male domination or patriarchy is well recognised, while in the domestic sphere, there is more or less equally forceful power relations between men and women. All societies – primitive or industrial – represent a set of social norms that clearly differentiates between men and women in terms of roles and responsibilities, activities and decision-making. However, in only some advanced societies the demarcation between men and women are not very clear or overlapping.

However, gender bias is more or less prevalent in all types of societies across the world cultures. Gender bias means preferential treatment or prejudices toward one gender over the other. Bias may be a conscious or unconscious manifestation, implicit or explicit attitude or expression. Gender bias is subjective and preferential favour towards men than women due to women’s inferior socio-cultural-economic-political positions in the society. Therefore, in many modern countries – gender based bias or prejudices are looked down as legal issue and such preferences are suppressed or eliminated by means of legislations governing electoral suffrage, workplaces, and family courts. Despite thoughtful efforts, gender bias remains grassrooted and impacts negatively on women in every aspect of living and wellbeing.

Gender bias is based on the biological needs of men and women to culturally assigned gender differences to socially prescriptive gender based- roles and stereotypes. Gender bias leads to discrimination and inequality between men and women. In other words, identities (roles or expectations), stereotypes (ideals or labelling) and biases (preferences or discrimination) are the main causes of gender inequality. Gender inequalities are grounded empirically and shaped socially by distinctions and manifestations of reality under male and female notions of the world.

In India, discriminatory attitudes towards women and biased treatment of women are practiced generations after generations. Such gender biases affect almost all women over or part of their lives. Although the Constitution of India has granted women ‘equal rights’, but gender inequalities and stereotypes remain deeply seated at home, at workplace, and in society. Due to traditional social bias towards women and for continuity of their neglected and disempowered position in society; there are limited opportunities for women to access to resources and services such as education, health care, jobs, membership, ownership, political and legal status, etc. Women are disadvantaged in their entire life-cycle – from birth to death. Social preference for men alike starts from birth till death. Son preference leads to foremost gender bias by killing female foetus in the womb (foeticide) and infanticide outside the womb. Gender bias regards girl child as ‘burden’ and boy child as ‘boon’. Girl children are raised as surviving at the edge, with least needs and benefits. The gender socialisation process grows them as the ‘sacrificor’ – living life for others. Gender biased culture puts social sanction on them to give priority to family care over their own socio-psychological development and empowerment. Gender bias pushes their health and education as secondary needs. Mal- or under-nutrition and drop-out rates are highest among girls than boys and women than men. When a girl matures to a woman she carries the same family burden with more intensity and less individuality. Therefore, Indian society is biased to add primary responsibility for child and elderly care on women. Women are often fatigued due to hard work in family and field. Society is biased of their capabilities and underestimated their contributions in family, economy and society. Domestic and sexual abuses are accepted as part of women’s life and an intrinsic part of being the ‘weaker sex’ in society. Poverty and exploitation are the major challenges faced by all women in some point of their lives. Devaluation of their intellectual capacity is the main cause for their insignificant representation in politics. Such biases thus deter and stop Indian women to aim and achieve higher social status and standard of living.

According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP’s) Human Development Report 2013, India’s Human Development Index (HDI) on the basis of ‘gender inequality’ is South Asia’s worst performance after Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh – which are poorer than India and have lower HDIs, but all do comparatively better than India when it comes to gender equality. UNDP’s Gender Inequality Index (GII), introduced in 2010, is the measurement of gender inequality or disparity. This index measures the ‘loss of achievement’ within a country due to gender inequality rising from gender biased cultural practices. It is now believed worldwide that gender inequality restricts economic growth and social development of a nation. Gender disparity in India has led to ‘loss of achievement’ for the nation (UNDP, 2010). 2013 Human Development Report lists India as the worst performer in South Asia for its highest Gender Inequality Index (GII), higher than Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh. And Gender Development Index (GDI) reveals the gender gaps in human development as measured by health, education and economic resource control.

However, in modern society, women’s place is no longer in the confinement of home, but steps outside of home. There is ever increasing demand for financial security for family and self. The gender bias in urban society has been decreasing recently due to demand for women’s participation in work. Gender bias in economic participation of women has transformed from work restriction to more opening in unorganised than organised sectors. Gender bias reducing in economic sector does not reduce accordingly the gender bias in family. Therefore, the problems of combining both family roles and work roles have become more challenging for women as well as society. Today it is as much a men’s social dilemma as it is a ‘women’s dilemma’. It is therefore important to examine gender bias and inequality in the past and the present, as well as gain the awareness of the roles that women and men play together for the betterment of society.

Over the centuries, women around the world have voiced for ‘feminism’ – to advocate women’s rights on the grounds of political, social and economic equality to men. This includes breaking free from gender bias and discrimination and seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education, health and employment. But, ‘feminism’ is grossly mistaken as “overpowering men”, when its real essence is to “establish gender equality and equity in society”. Therefore, government and non-government efforts have targeted ‘women’ as main beneficiaries to uplift their social status, bridge gender-gap, and bring gender parity in society.

1.1.7 SUMMARY:

This module addressed the main concepts of women’s studies: sex versus gender, gender difference, gender stereotype, and gender bias.
‘Sex’ is biological. It includes our genetic makeup, our hormones, and our body parts, especially our sex and reproductive organs.
‘Gender’ refers to society’s expectations about how we should think and act as boys and girls, and as men and women. It is our biological, social, and legal status as men and women, given by our society.
Masculinity and femininity are made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors. The modern cultural mantra is that gender and sex are unrelated to each other. In other words, men – can be feminine, masculine, or both; and women – can be feminine, masculine, or both.
‘Gender stereotype’ is created by social norms which have made it mandatory or as sanction that women to be married and bear and care for children, and men to provide for financial and social security under the institution of marriage and family.
‘Gender bias’ is subjective understanding, differential treatment, special opportunity and extra benefit for one gender over the other due to their higher social rank and position in the society. On the other hand, gender bias reflects exploitation and violation of rights of the other gender due to their lower and minority status in society.
It is an acknowledged fact that women, by and large, are excluded from crucial economic, social and political roles; since as primary identity of being wives and mothers, they are associated with lesser power and fewer prerogatives than men.
Disparity between men and women and discriminatory practices against women affect women’s wellbeing as well as progress for all and humanity.
Gender – or what it is to be a ‘woman’ or a ‘man’ – is still very much an issue in society and a critical discourse of Women’s Studies.

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References:

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Chodorow, N., 1995, “Family Structure and Feminine Personality”, in Feminism and Philosophy, N. Tuana, and R. Tong (eds.), Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
de Beauvoir, S., 1972, The Second Sex, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Friedan, B., 1963, Feminine Mystique, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd.
Haslanger, S., 1995, “Ontology and Social Construction”, Philosophical Topics, 23: 95– 125.
Kimmel, M., 2000, The Gendered Society, New York: OUP.
MacKinnon, C., 2006, “Difference and Dominance”, in Theorizing Feminisms, E. Hackett and S. Haslanger (eds.), Oxford: OUP.Nicholson, L., 1994, “Interpreting Gender”, Signs, 20: 79–105.
Renzetti, C. and D. Curran, 1992, “Sex-Role Socialization”, in Feminist Philosophies, J. Kourany, J. Sterba, and R. Tong (eds.), New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
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Young, I. M., 1997, “Gender as Seriality: Thinking about Women as a Social Collective”, in Intersecting Voices, I. M. Young, Princeton: Princeton University Press.