5 Women and Social Problems

Minnie Mathew

1.   INTRODUCTION

This module is designed for Master’s students of Women’s Development and Empowerment. It will help learners understand the social problems of women from a wide perspective and understand the significant and growing problems among them and help them seek solutions to address them.

The Constitution of India provides equal rights and opportunities for women. It not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women. Within the democratic framework, our laws, development policies, plans and programmes are aimed at women’s advancement. India has also ratified various international conventions and human rights instruments committing to secure equal rights of women. Key among them is the ratification of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1993.

All this has resulted in some level of progress in the status of women over the years. Problems such as Devadasi system, Sati, prohibition of widow remarriage etc. have almost disappeared from the Indian society. All said and done, women are considered to be inferior to men even today. It is a fact that many girls are not aware of their rights. Girls and women do not have social freedom. They become victims of domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape. The practice of honour killings continues to exist. Practices such as child marriage, dowry deaths and bride burning are not uncommon in India. Widows are not respected and highly discriminated against.

Women experience a variety of social problems due to the inherent discriminative behavior in our society. Discrimination begins even before a child is born due to practices such as selective abortion and female infanticide. Girls who are born are discriminated against either because they are not wanted or because of the strong social compulsions in our society. Girls are treatedinferior to boys. Even today many girls are not provided education but made to perform household chores including child care. Even if education was provided, girls do not have much of a choice regarding the subjects they learn or the career they would want to pursue. Girl children are not given nutritious food or adequate health care. Only women are expected to perform duties such as cooking, child care, housekeeping etc. and only men are expected to undertake work outside the home and be the breadwinner of the family.

In the patriarchal society which is male dominated, women do not have property rights. When they go for work, they are not provided wages equal to men. They are given less important roles in the work place and do not participate in decision making. Many girls and women in India do not even perceive this as a great problem because they believe that boys and men are superior and should be given preferential treatment. They believe that men have the right and privilege of violence against them. In this module we will look at the major social problems experienced by women in India.

2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Understand the various social problems among women in India.
• Understand the magnitude of the prevalent social problems.
• Look at some of the solutions for reducing the impact of the problems.

  3.  Social Problems among Women in India

3.1. Family and Societal Preference for Males

The male preference stems from the slow economic growth of several decades, skewed economic growth, and the fiscal deficit which leaves limited space for rural infrastructure, employment, education and rural health, the persistence of poverty and the limited economic opportunities for women. In India generally the male child is given more importance than the female child because the male is supposed to be the bread winner of the family. The son or male preference is not universal and cannot be generalized. While in some of the Indian states, there is an egalitarian approach, there is a strong male preference in many of the Indian states.

Since sons are expected to stay with their parents and take care of them in old age; there is a great preference for the male child. They are considered as potential contributors to the family economy. Boys also continue the family lineage. Religious rights are also performed by the boys.

It is commonly felt that girls will be married away to another family and therefore fewer investments should be made on them. The persistence of the dowry system in India is yet another reason for making less investment in the girl child. Therefore equal inheritance rights are not practiced. As a result girls get a smaller share of the family property.

These attitudes are perpetuated mainly due to the fact that in olden days boys lived with their parents and worked in the same villages. Today there are many families where the boys go out to work and do not necessarily stay back with parents. In India male preference exists in both ends of the socio economic strata. On one end of the spectrum, you have the rich family business which is passed on through generations where sons may live close to the parents and on the other end we find that in poor households boys stay back with the family to work.

When a girl is married into another family, there is a tendency by the mothers in law to keep her under control either because they feel threatened or because they do not want these girls to disrupt the family harmony.

Lack of empowerment among women and greater dependence on men is a big contributor to their inferior position of women in the family. Women’s participation in labour force has a powerful role in gender equality. Mother’s education has a significant contribution to reducing male preference.

3.2. Skewed Sex ratio

Sex ratio is a tool to determine gender equity in a population. According to the 2011 census, the population ratio in India was 940 females per 1000 males which is not good but is better than the 2001 census data which showed only 933 females per 1000 males. The gap between men and women exists in both rural and urban areas. Major states which have shown a decline in sex ratio are Gujarat, Bihar and Jammu & Kashmir.

The child sex ratio is even more disappointing since the trend has reversed over the decade with 919 females to 1000 males when compared to 927 females in 2001. It has plummeted from 983 in 1951 to 919 in 2011. While this is the average disparity, some Indian states have sex ratios less than 900. The problem is high in some of the Indian states; Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Chandigarh, Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar being the worst (Census 2011). This is the reflection of gender attitudes within the families. The patriarchal societies in many parts of India have translated their prejudice into a compulsive preference for boys.

As seen from various data sources, the death rate of female children far exceeds the death of male children from infancy to age 15. Female child mortality is the result of lack of medical care given to girls. In families with more number of girls, the likelihood of neglected nutritional and medical care and infanticide is high.

Sex selective abortions are a clear indication of son preference. While abortions are legal in India determination of the sex of the foetus is illegal. However there are illegal practices of getting to know the sex of the foetus and destroying it when they know that it is a girl. As a result, the Planning Commission of India had incorporated gender equity as part of their strategy through their five year plans. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has taken up several measures to execute the ‘Pre Conception & Pre Natal Diagnostics Technique Act (PC & PNDT Act). The Act provides for the prohibition of sex selection and the prevention of misuse of diagnostic techniques for sex determination leading to female foeticide. As seen from NFHS-3, it may be noted that for women who had an ultrasound test, the pregnancy resulted in more boys (46%) than girls (39%). This fact corroborates with the sex ratio of these live-born children being only 849 females per 1,000 males.

A skewed sex ratio can lead to a slowdown in labour force and would affect domestic economic growth. It further creates an atmosphere for antisocial behavior and violence. According to the ILO’s Global Employment Trends 2013 report, India’s labour force participation rate for women fell from just over 37 per cent in 2004-05 to 29 per cent in 2009-10. Out of 131 countries with available data, India ranks 11th from the bottom in female labour force participation.

The Prime minister has launched the “Beti Bachao – Beti Padhao” (BBBP) campaign to reverse the  dwindling   numbers. Save   the   girl   child,   educate   the   girl   child   is   a Government   of India scheme to generate awareness and improving the efficiency of delivery of services for girls and women.

3.3. Neglect of girls and women

While the birth of a girl child is not celebrated, the birth of a boy is considered a blessing and therefore accompanied by great celebrations. In many cases, girls are relatively neglected

Girls are often breast fed for shorter duration than boys, indicating a male preference (NFHS-3). Female children are given less food, both in quality and quantity, and therefore are undernourished when compared to male children. According to NFHS-3, men were more likely than women to consume milk or curds regularly. Overall 33 percent of women were vegetarians when compared to 24 percent of men. Boys are normally fed the more nutritious food items whereas girls are fed more of the cereals and less eggs, milk and vegetables. Girls are therefore anaemic, do not achieve their full growth, and have restricted intrauterine growth in pregnancy, produce malnourished children, thereby perpetuating the cycle of malnutrition among women. More women (55%) are anaemic when compared to men (24%).

If you look at neonatal mortality, you will find that more girls than boys survive. This trend reverses as they grow older as can be seen from postnatal mortality and under 5 mortality where more girls die as compared to boys. This is due to differential treatment or access to resources where girls are at a disadvantage. This phenomenon is true for India and China. The risk of dying between ages 1 and 5 is more than 75 per cent higher for girls. This is substantiated by data of the Sample Registration System. It is true that more boys than girls receive health care as is evident from hospital records.

Although maternal mortality rates have come down in India from 206 in 2011 to 174 in 2015, it continues to be high when compared globally. Data from Sample Registration System (SRS) shows that the major reasons for maternal mortality are due to unsafe abortions, pre and postpartum haemorrhage, anaemia, obstructed labour, hypertensive disorders, and postpartum sepsis. Mortality can be reduced by increasing access to safe abortions, provision of antenatal care, timely check-up and treatment, pre and postnatal care and institutional deliveries.

The government also has the responsibility of providing good quality health services for ‘safe motherhood’ and has several outreach programmes such as ‘Child Survival and safe motherhood (CSSM) programme, ‘Emergency Obstetric Care (EOC) and safe motherhood under the Reproductive, Child Health (RCH) programmes. Over the years there has been an increase in the use of antenatal services by pregnant women. With increase in educational levels and income, women seek antenatal care from doctors whereas the less educated women received services from ANM/nurse/midwife/LHV (NFHS-3). Urban women had early and more number of health check-up during pregnancy. More women with higher education and wealth index received iron and folic acid tablets and were immunized. It is quite interesting to note that with increase in men’s education levels and higher wealth index, more men were involved in the wife’s antenatal check-up.

Despite the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 34 percent of girls are married before the age of 18. In rural areas the percentage is 40 percent which is very high. There are great health risks associated with adolescent pregnancy. Adolescents in the age group of 15-19 are twice as likely to die as women in their twenties. The risk is fivefold for girls below the age of 15. This is duethe fact that the adolescents have not yet completed the growth process and with their poor nutritional status, there is a competition between the growth of the mother and the foetus. The result is a low birth weight infant. All this is the result of lack of awareness among girls and women and their poor capacity to make decisions due to gender biases.

While female enrolment has increased over the decades, there is a gender gap in upper primary and secondary schooling due to school dropout. This is more so for girls from disadvantaged sections of the society. The situation is worse in states like Bihar and Rajasthan. Gender discrimination is also seen in the type of schools they are sent to. While boys are enrolled in better quality education institutions, girls are sent to the government schools. Lack of proper toilets, water and security also prevents adolescent girls from attending upper primary and secondary schools. Gender inequality in education is also linked to other inequalities between boys and girls.

3.4. Restrictions for girls and women

The ‘purdah’ system in India reflects a range of restrictions in life when they become faceless and voiceless. Decisions for girls are invariably taken by fathers, brothers or uncles. Women very often do not have the freedom of movement. They cannot move about for their own pleasure, and are not permitted to appear in public. They can only travel for family approved purposes. They cannot travel late in the evening due to a number of household responsibilities.

As far as education is concerned girls face restrictions for going to school especially when they attain puberty. Educational institutions are invariably not gender friendly they are without facilities for washrooms and change of sanitary napkins. These situations make them susceptible to infections and affect their reproductive health. Girls are not allowed to go to the library in Aligarh Muslim University because boys will get attracted and discipline issues will crop up.

The Nizamuddin Dargah, New Delhi does not permit women. The Haji Ali Dargah shrine Mumbai does not permit women to the most sacred inner sanctum. According to the shrine’s authorities it is considered “un-Islamic under the Sharia Law” for women to visit graves. Women are not allowed to enter Jama Masjid Delhi after sunset. Women are not allowed to enter Sree Padmabhaswamy temple vaults. The Lord Ayyappa Temple in Kerala bars women in the age group of 10 to 50 since women in that age group would be menstruating. It is believed that women who visit Lord Karthikeya Temple Pushkar will be cursed. There are several places of worship where menstruating women are not allowed.

During menstruation there are dietary restrictions and also there are restrictions for physical activity which will affect the nutrition and health status of girls and women. One of the causes of malnutrition among girls is the compulsion for girls to eat last and the least which would mean that they eat only whatever is left behind after the men have eaten. The problem is serious among the poorer segments of the society.

They do not have the freedom of choice regarding their own lives. When it comes to marriage, decisions are taken by everyone other than the girl herself and she has no say in the matter. Girls are expected to be sexually chaste. Free association with the opposite sex is only permitted among the educated urban elite.

India is one of the largest economies of South Asia with 6 million women. As far as jobs are concerned, there is a law which prohibits women from jobs involving danger to life, health or morals says the World Bank Groups Women, Business and the Law 2016. The Labour force participation of women in India is dropping with only 24.8 percent of women’s participation as of 2011-2012 in rural areas. In urban areas there has been an increase and was 14.7 percent.

3.5. Mistreatment and Violence against women

Women have been victims of ill treatment, humiliation, torture, abduction, rape murder and exploitation. Violence happens both within and outside the family. Thousands of women are battered at home and several are killed over dowry matters. Wife battering, marital rape, sexual abuse of female children are a few examples of domestic violence.

Violence against women is rampant in India and is not a new phenomenon. Crime against women has been increasing over the years. A total of 3, 37,922 cases have been reported in the country during the year 2014, showing a crime rate of 56.3. Of this there were 36,735 cases of rape. The offenders were found to be known to the victims (86%), 197 were custodial rapes. 57,311 cases were reported under kidnapping & abduction of women. There were 8,501 dowry death victims. Incidence of assault of women’s modesty was reported among 82,235 cases and insult to the modesty of women in 12,589 cases. Cruelty by husbands or their relatives were reported in 1,22,907 cases. Tamil Nadu has the lowest crime rate in India. The highest rates were from Assam and Rajasthan.

The police invariable refuse to register cases of particularly the poor women. However according to NCRB, 2014, a total of 5, 12,980 persons (consisting of 4,51,299 males and 61,681 females) were arrested under crime against women.

This reflects serious problems with the value system that Indian men imbibe. Findings from ICRW’s International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) in India reflect that while many Indian men support policies which promote equal opportunities for women, they also feel threatened about it. They were aware of laws against violence against women; they feel that there were occasions when women deserved to be beaten. Among the six countries studied by ICRW, Indian men were the least supportive of equitable roles and relationship between men and women. While they were aware of the cultural changes taking place, they have not internalized the change. However the Indian Government has shown to have the most progressive affirmative action policies.

Laws for crimes against women under the Indian Penal Code (IPC)

1. Rape (Sec. 376 IPC)
2. Attempt to commit rape (Sec 376/511 IPC)
3. Kidnapping & abduction of women (Section 363,364,364A, 366 IPC)
4. Dowry deaths (Section 304B IPC)
5. Assault on woman with intent to outrage her modesty (Sec. 354 IPC)

     5.1 Sexual harassment (Sec.354A IPC)*

5.2 Assault on woman with intent to outrage her modesty (Sec. 354C IPC)

5.3 Voyeurism (Sec. 354D IPC)

6.  Insult to the modesty of women (Sec. 509 IPC)

     6.1 At office premises

6.2 At places related to work

6.3 In public transport

6.4 In other places

   7.  Cruelty by husband or his relatives, (Sec. 498A IPC)

8.  Importation of girl from foreign country (up to 21 years of age) (Sec. 366 B IPC)

9.  Abetment of suicide of women (Sec. 306 IPC)*

The gender specific laws for which crime statistics are recorded throughout the country are –

(i)   The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

(ii)   The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986

(iii)   The Commission of Sati Prevention Act, 1987

(iv)   The Protection of women from domestic Violence Act, 2005*

(v)   The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956

Exploitation and Poverty among women

There exists a gender pay wage gap in India with women earning only 56 percent of what their male colleagues earn for performing the same work. The gender gap widens when education of women increase and as they advance in their careers. Women hold fewer senior level posts when compared to men. They hold only 7.7% of board seats and just 2.7% of board chairs.

The share of women in the organized sector is low (19%). Only one in six employees is a woman in manufacturing and commercial services. The largest employer of women is the public sector (70 %). The share of women’s employment in the Central, State and Local levels is on the increase due to fair wages, and maternity and other health benefits.

While the engine of growth in the services sector is the IT/BPO industry, women comprise only 1/3 of this industry.

Women’s contribution to the agriculture sector is high, handling 60 percent of all agricultural operations and earning only 50 to 75 percent of male agricultural workers. The wages are very low to overcome poverty levels. Women especially female headed households face poverty more than men which is called feminization of poverty. This is linked to greater malnutrition and health problems among women.

India is a major point of sourcing, of trafficking of women and children. Girls and women are bought, sold and trafficked to other countries. They are exploited and forced to be sex workers. Due to poverty there is a voluntary entry of girls into sex work.

Trafficking of young girls in the age group of 9-14 and women take place from Nepal and Bangladesh for sexual exploitation in India. They are sold by parents due to abject poverty. The number of missing children are the highest in the poorest Indian states.

Poor girls are lured with a job opportunity in a city and are sold to a domestic worker placement agency which in turn sells the girls as domestic family labour where they work for 14-16 hours per day and do all household chores and the agencies are paid for providing the domestic help. The agencies in turn pay lower wages to the domestic labour. Due to lack of awareness, these girls are caught in this trap forever. They are sometimes physically beaten up or sexually exploited. These situations are common girls from poor large families. At times very young girls are sold as brides for old men.

These problems are triggered by poor economic conditions.

4.   Summary

In this chapter we learnt about the social problems faced by women in spite of the fact that the Indian Constitution provides equal rights and privileges for women. Girls face discrimination from the womb. Even within their own households, their own parents do not always want them and those born are not treated equal to boys. They are breast fed for shorter duration, are not fed the best food in the family and are oriented to take up gender stereotyped roles and responsibilities. The choice of schools and medical care vary for boys and girls.

The Indian Government has shown to have the most progressive affirmative action policies. The Prime Minister is disturbed to see the skewed sex ratio in the country. Fewer women when compared to men, has both social and economic ramifications. It also leads to antisocial behavior and violence against women. Violence against women has been on the increase according to the Crime Records Bureau of India.

With limited opportunities for education and job opportunities and lower wages, we have the phenomenon of feminization of poverty. This leads to trafficking of girls and women.

5. Conclusions

India’s worsening sex ratio calls for policy and public attention. Although the Prime minister has launched the Government of India scheme “Beti Bachao – Beti Padhao” (BBBP) campaign to reverse the dwindling numbers, to save the girl child, educate the girl child , generate awareness and improving the efficiency of delivery of services for girls and women, it would be herculean task  to achieve  the  results.

Focus on the health, nutrition and education of girls is crucial for the future generation and economic development of the country. Even a few years of primary education for girls, brings down infant mortality, have fewer unwanted pregnancies, reduces inequalities and improves children’s nutrition, health, and school attendance.Increasing the political participation of women is important for advancing issues of importance to women on national agenda.

Women’s economic participation can help them overcome poverty, reduce exploitation of women and speed up development. They invest more within the family for health care, nutritious food, and education. With women’s access to credit, banking and financial services they will achieve economic empowerment, and will be able to contribute to the national economy.

The influence of media on son preference being high, this power should be harnessed using the positive deviants among women who do not have a male preference. In spite of the changing roles, media perpetuates gender stereotypes.