10 Styles and areas of child rearing, its influences on the development

G. Baradha

10.1 Introduction

The human baby at birth is quite helpless, left to himself the baby will perish without care. It is the parents who take care of all the needs of the baby such as feeding, clothing, personal cleanliness and health care. Besides taking care of the physical needs of the baby, parents also fulfill the psychological needs such as love, affection and feeling of security. From the time the baby reaches the age of simple understanding, the parents prepare him to be a member of the society by teaching him rules and behaviour. Practices such as feeding, weaning, toilet training, health care, love, affection and security feeling such as cuddling, soothing are called child rearing.

Child rearing practices plays an important role in the development of the personality of an individual. The components of personality of an individual such as habits, attitudes, interests, aspiration, values, socio-emotional behaviour and intellectual performance are much influenced by the way in which a child has been reached. The process of child rearing process is also known as “parenting”.

Objectives

By learning about the styles and areas of child rearing practices students learn about

• Meaning and importance of child rearing practices
• Styles and areas of child rearing practices
• Influence of child rearing practices on the development of children

 2 Styles of child rearing practices

Parental styles are defined as set of attitudes, beliefs and goals of parents, have put into practice in their daily interactions with their children. Parents adopt many styles, from quite strict to a very permissive one and a child reared in one type of family may be markedly different from a child reared in another type of the family. Styles of child rearing adopted by the parents is determined by many factors.

2.1 Factors determining child rearing practices

• Social class
• Family size
• Educational status of the parents
• Occupation of the parent
• Traditional practices of the societ
• Culture
• Religion
• Gender
• Number of sibling
• Ordinal position of the child v Social status

   Stressful social expectations, economic conditions have great effect on child rearing practices. Parents having greater marital conflicts, suffering from debts and single parent households show their sufferings on their innocent children. Child abuse is most frequent in families living in stressful environment. Researchers have proved that the children of middle class are said to be honest, happy, well mannered and considerate. A major goal for middle class parents is to teach the children to be self-disciplined and self directed who think for themselves and who want to act in a socially accepted manner. On the other hand working and lower class parents tend to be more interested in conformity, obedience, respect for authority, neatness and cleanliness. In poor families children’s needs may not be fulfilled, hence they may be malnourished. In some families children are the child laborers.

• Family size

   The nuclear family in which father, mother and the child live together. In extended families parents, brothers with their families, unmarried sisters, widowed sisters and grandparents live together. When the size and characteristics of families varies, has an effect on the level of affection and stimulation, opportunities for peer play and the number of adult models children have to imitate and learn. Due to divorce, separation or death of any one parent, the family becomes a one-parent family/ single parent family. The chronic stress and practical problems experienced by parents in such families are reflected in child rearing practices. It is very difficult to fulfill the needs of the children in such families and very much insecured or over dependent.

• Educational Status of the parents

In India majority of the people live in rural areas. Child rearing practices are followed what was practiced by the parents and grandparents. The educated women follow the practices what is ideal as per doctor’s advice.

• Occupation of the parent

Due to modernization, and improved women employment, both the mother and father areworking in most of the families. Thus the occupation keep away the parents from the child, the child is left in the hands of ahya’s/ servants. These children feel insecured, rejected and have no proper role model for the ideal behaviour. Sometimes these children get into bad company; the negative occupation of the parents such as smugglers, alcohol production pushes the child to acquire bad values.

•   Traditional practices of the society

In  this  21st  century  also  in  remote  villages/tribal  areas,  parents  exercise  the  rearing practices that are followed by their mothers/grandmothers. For example, the practice of feeding coloustrum to the new born baby may not be there, instead sugar water is given; parents pamper their children very much. Whereas in urban area, due to women education, awareness programme through mass media about the significance of coloustrum and the facilities available, parents follow the ideal rearing practices.

• Culture

Child rearing practices are embedded in the culture and determine to a large extent, the behaviors and expectations surrounding a child’s birth and infancy. Cultural practices are followed to rear the child in tribal areas and remote villages; children are breast feed for longer period, in some families even till 5 or 6 years. In some society the child is fed at anytime they wake up, due to this sleep pattern of the child is affected. Toilet practices are started very later. Culture influences child development by creating an environment of values and beliefs that shapes parenting

• Religion

Various religious beliefs lead differences in methods and goals of child rearing and training. The differences may vary from degrees of punishments and disciplinary practices used by the parents to emphasis on self – reliance. And also difference in attitude towards achievements among children have been linked to the religion of their parents.

• Gender

From the moment of birth, girls and boys are treated differently. Boys are fed for longer duration, later favorable foods are provided, allowed to go out often than the girls. Boys’ health care is taken in the best hospital and sent to the reputed school. Research evidences prove that the mortality and morbidity rates are higher for girls, and the academic achievements is lower for girls, which is the impact of gender disparity shown in child rearing practices.

• Number of sibling

Number of children in the family determines the kind of child rearing process. The only child, only girl child among many boys and only boy child among many girls are taken care in a better way than the other children in the family. Sometimes parents may pamper too much, the result is the child may be a dependent one.

• Ordinal position of the child

The first borns and the last borns are reared very carefully by the parents without any hesitations. This may develop the superior attitude among them and inferior complex among the other children.

10.2.2 Styles of child rearing

Parents adopt many parenting styles from quite strict to very permissive one and a child reared in one type of family may markedly different from a child reared in another type. There are three parenting styles. Good knowledge about the parenting styles and the impact of adopting specific parenting style will help to confine to the appropriate one. Very prominent styles are:

• Authoritarian
• Democratic
• Permissive

Authoritarian technique

Characteristics

• Rigid
• Punitive
• Cold
• Lack of freedom for expression of thought and action
• Constant criticisms
• Expects unattainable standards
• Pays little recognition
• Deprives opportunities
• Adopts corporal punishments
• Demands unquestioning obedience
• Emphasizes on perfection

Effect on children

*        Introverted

*        Anxious

*        Uncertain

*        Sensitive

*        Fantasies

*        Lacks curiosity

*        Lacks originality and creativity

*        Feels insecure

*        Lacks self- confidence

*        Fear of Punishment

*        Unsociable

*        Unfriendly

*        Withdrawn

*        Hostile

*        Rebellious

*        Shy

*        Suspicious

*        Dishonest

Democratic technique

Characteristics

• Firm
• Sets limits and goals
• Uses reasoning
•  Encourages independence
• More receptive to disagreement
• Explains rules and regulations clearly
• Punishes appropriately
• Communicates rationale for punishment
• Rewards with praise
• Expresses signs of approval
• Educates to behave appropriately
• Plans for fostering self – discipline
• Motivates child to live upto expectation

Effects on children

Permissive technique

Characteristics

• No control
• Non demanding
• Warm
• Inconsistent
• Uninvolvement
• Lack of interest and concern
• No punishment for wrong doings
• No rolemodel

Effects on children

*        Immature

*        Dependent

*        Confused

*        Fearful

*        Anxiety

*        Aggressive

*        Lack of conformity to social rules

*        Feels insecured

*        Unable to differentiate between right and wrong

*        Develops illusion

*        Resentfulness

From this we can understand that affection oriented parenting style is more effective than power – oriented parenting style. To discipline children, parents may attempt the following

• Become an attached parent
• Know the child well
• Guide the child respect others
• Talk and listen to the child
• Be a positive role model
• Provide clear and adequate information
•  Teach the child prosocial behaviour and attitudes
• Adopt an instrumental approach
• Avoid corporal punishments
• Redirect positively
• Verbalize feelings
•  Suggest natural consequences
• Give choices
• Physically guide
• Maintain eye contact
• Withdraw privileges for a short while
• Practice temporary isolation and
• Distract

10.3 Areas of child rearing

• Clothing
• Rewards and punishment
• Disciplining
• Habit formation

10.3.1. Feeding

The first two years of life, characterized by rapid physical development, is a period in which many changes occur that affect feeding and food intake. The adequacy of nutrient intake influences the interaction of children with the environment. Healthy, well-nourished children have the energy to respond to and learn from stimuli, interact with parents and care givers that encourages bonding and attachment.

10.3.1.1 Breast Feeding

A healthy mother’s milk contains practically everything a young baby needs for nourishment. Breast feed babies are healthier and have had fewer illness than bottle fed babies. The sucking of the hungry baby is better than anything else that stimulates a mother’s breast to secrete milk. For the first few days a thick, yellowish fluid called colostrum comes from the mother’s breast. Colostrum is very rich in vitamins and minerals. It also contains antibodies which possesses strong anti – viral activity. During this time, if the baby is allowed to nurse at regular intervals, his sucking stimulates the production of breast milk. The aim of feeding is to produce a well nourished baby and a relaxed happy mother. The significance of feeding is the atmosphere in which the feeding takes place and the quality of relationship between the mother, father and child.

Advantages of breast feeding To the baby:

Nutritional factor – Breast milk is the natural food to the infant. It is a perfectly balanced food. Nutritional components are well suited to the infant’s digestion. Mortality and morbidity rate of breast fed babies is lower than that of bottle fed babies.

Immunological factor – Lysozyme, lactoferrin, immunoglobulins, fatty acids and monoglycerides are present in colostrum as well as in breast milk. These factors are anti-infective properties of human milk.

Psychological factor – Infant derives a sense of security and belongings in the early mother and child relationship from the comfort of being held than from the feeding process.

Other advantages

• Breast milk is sterile, warm and ready for the baby.
• The need for sucking is fully satisfied in breast feeding than in bottle feeding.
• Infant’s jaw is more fully developed and teeth are less crowded as he must work harder to extract milk.
• Less danger of contamination and gastro-intestinal problems.
• LESS danger of incorrect formula
• Human milk is at the right temperature
• It costs less, commercial preparation are very expensive
• It needs no bottle, not necessary to mix
• It is not allergic
• It helps mother to loose weight
• It establishes a warm relationship between the mother and the child
• It is an important birth control factor
• Risk of breast cancer is higher in women who have not fed their children
• It is convenient to be administered by the mother at any place and at any time.

10.3.1.2 Artificial feeding

Feeding children with animal milk, usually using a bottle is called artificial feeding. When the mother is unable to breast – feed the baby, owing to reasons such as the separation of the mother, sick or death of the mother, baby is fed by this method. This is also called bottle-feeding.

• Modification of formula

A mixture of animal milk, water and sugar in suitable preparation is called formula. The amount and kind of milk and sugar and amount of water that should be used vary according to the individual needs of the baby. The formula may be changed according to the suitability for the baby. If it is fresh cow’s milk, to begin with to one-part of milk, two parts of water must be added. After 2 weeks or so, the proportion may be one part of milk and one part of water. Thus, slowly, the quantity of water added must be decreased until the baby is able to digest milk alone.

*         Special care to be taken in artificial feeding

*         Preparation of correct proportion of the formula

*         Sterilization of formula

*         Preparation of bottle

*         The size of the teat hole

*         Correct temperature of the milk

*         Correct posture of feeding

*         Giving fruit juices in between feed

Disadvantages of artificial feeding

Some mothers, who are fashion conscious and worried about their figure, prefer bottle feeding. Due to necessity, the working mothers too have to bottle feed their babies. Bottle feeding has its own disadvantages

• Failure of milk secretion
• Under or over feeding
• Gastro-intestinal disorder
• Constipation
• Incidence of anemia
• Bottle addiction
• High cost
• Time consuming

10.3.1.3 Feeding schedule

Whether it is breast feeding or artificial feeding, how often the baby is fed is important. The frequency of feeding is referred to as demand feeding or schedule feeding. Demand feeding is feeding the baby when he demands feeding by way of crying without feeding at fixed intervals.

Schedule feeding is feeding the baby at regular intervals. Most babies do well if fed every four hours. If the baby has established some routine, the baby will sleep in between the feeds and wake up at appropriate feeding. By this way, stomach upsets are prevented. Both mother and the baby do not feel restless or tired.

10.3.1.4 Supplementary feeding

The foods that are given in addition to breast milk or bottle milk is known as supplementary feeding. After three months, mother`s milk or bottle milk alone cannot meet the growth requirement of the baby. Supplementary food items may be introduced in the following order:

• Second month – Little quantity of fruit juice and cod liver oil
• Third month – Juices of cooked vegetables
• Fourth month – Mashed fruits and vegetables
• Fifth month – well cooked and mashed cereals and pulses
• Sixth month – egg boiled and given in small quantities
• Seventh month – Flesh foods may be given
• Tenth month – Chapatti and bread in small quantities
• One year – encouraged to take all kinds of food that adults eat

Note: Anyone kind of food should be given at a time and starting with little quantitiesA thin consistency of new food should only be given. If the child refuses, it may be omitted and reintroduced then afterwards.

Seasoning, spicy foods, fibrous foods may affect the child’s stomach.

10.3.2 Weaning

The process of transferring the child from the breast or bottle feed to semisolid or solid feed is known as weaning. Partial weaning means that the baby gets part of his nourishment from his mother’s milk and part in the form of other foods such as cow’s milk, mixture of cereals and vegetables. The optimum time to start weaning is 6 months.

If the baby is very large and is still hungry; introduce semisolid foods as early as 4 months. Beginning of mixed feeding is probably more convenient at the morning 10’o clock or afternoon 2’o clock.

Note:

• Only one new food to be given at a time
• Very small quantity to be introduced and increased only when the child is able to digest
• Food must be of a smooth consistency
• From 6-9 months of age, the baby should be used to feed mashed rice with dhal or milk, mashed vegetables and fruits.
• Children need four or five weaning meals a day, in addition to regular breast-feeding.
• After 9 months, food not be mashed
• By about one year, child to select and eat foods cooked for the family. The frequency of consumption should be atleast 4 or 5 times a day.

10.3.3 Sleeping

The child first warmth. A very young one or two months old sleep for 15-17 hours.learn to associate going to sleep with a pleasant feeling of food and baby sleeps immediately after birth sleeps from 20 – 22 hours, a baby of for 18 – 22 hours, when the baby is about 6 months old, he is likely to

• The baby to be put to bed every night at the same time. o The baby to be encouraged to brush at night.
• Any kind of medicine should not be given to make him sleep, except under doctor’s advice.
• Baby’s dress to be loose, front button and easy to dress and undress himself. o Don’t take the baby for movies and car drive.
• Don’t leave the baby alone in the day or night time. o The baby should be allowed to sleep

1. 15-20 hours by 0-5 months
2. 2/3rd  of a day by 6-12months
3. 10-12 hours sleep at night + 2 naps by 1-2 years
4. Regular sleep at night + 1 nap by 2 years

• Causes for disturbed sleep

Strenuous day, lengthy afternoon nap, lack of physical exercise, lack of ventilation, wet napkins, too heavy or insufficient bed clothing, colic pain, pricking of an unfastened safety pin. Having identified the reason for disturbed or restless sleep, parents should work on removing the underlying cause for the same and promote sleep

10.3.4 Toilet training

Toilet training is very important area of child rearing. It has a significant purpose in hygiene and psychology of the child. Children are subjected easily to worm infections; so mothers are advised to impart proper toilet training to the children, i.e to wash their hands and feet with soap after going to toilet. If training is attempted too early, it often results in an inappropriate focus on the issue, delay the time the child uses toilet indepentently. A toilet training is more effective, if it is introduced when the child has already acquired a certain level of maturity in mental and muscular co-ordination

Signs of readiness: the child

• has a dry diaper for a long period
• has bowel movements on a fairly regular schedule
• shows desire and ability to follow instructions
• is anxious to be changed from wet to dry diaper
• demonstrates in a recognizable way that urination or bowel movement is about to occur
• has the ability to get the toilet or potty when she needs to go

Steps followed in the process of toilet training

• Introduce the potty to the child
• Train the child to remove clothing and sit on the potty
• Guide the child to the toilet
• Verbally orient the happening
• Request the child to eliminate
•  Keep the child entertained
• Appreciative

Bowel training

• In the early months of infancy, the movement of bowel is a fairly simple reflex. As the child gets into 21/2 years, he requires more voluntary control of the bowel movement
• If the child moves his bowels within 10 minutes after the first meal of the day then it is normal
• The mother should not criticize the child
• Slowly give the child several opportunities to practice the various steps involved like removing the child’s clothes, sitting on the potty chair

Bladder training

Control of the urinary bladder, is something which the child gradually acquires by himself through physiological development

• Toddlers achieve the capacity to physically control their bladder muscles between 18 to 24 months of age
• The child’s mental development plays an important role in the child’s ability to control his bladder muscles
• Parents should remain as patient as possible to train the child
• Putting the child on the toilet at certain regular times – when the child wakes up in the morning, just after each meal, before and after naps and at interval in between

3.5 Health care

For an individual to grow well, health is very important. As the old adage goes” health is Wealth”, the parents should practice healthy, hygiene habits to have a happy family. The parents should be educated on the importance of health and diet to bring down infant – mortality and morbidity rates. For this, the parents should have fundamental knowledge of child care, and hygienic practices. The source of guidance for the mother for treatment of illness is the elders at home and neighbourhood. Only when the child is seriously ill, the child has to be taken to the hospital. This can be reduced to a considerable extent by immunizing babies against fatal diseases like diphtheria, tetanus etc.

• Triple antigen or DPT vaccines provides immunization against these diseases namely diphtheria, pertusis, tetanus
• BCG is the vaccine against tuberculosis
• Vaccination facilities are available at Primary Health Centres(PHC) and also at private clinics
• Oral Rehydration Therapy(ORT) will prevent dehydration
• ORS (Oral Rehydration Solution) consists of giving liquids like lime juice, coconut water and barley water
• ORS is prepared by mixing one pinch of salt and four pinch of sugars in one glass of boiled and cooled water
• The polio vaccine is an oral vaccine and it gives immunity against poliomyelitis
• Before the end of first year of life, all vaccines should be administered

Vaccines cannot provide protection for a long period;booster doses must be administered or suggested in the immunization schedule

3.6 Clothing

• Clothes should be loose and comfortable allowing free movement
• The cloth should be shrink resistant, so that they do not get tight after wash
• The design should be simple
• Too many hooks, zippers, buttons should be avoided
• Plastic panties should be used sparingly
• Over clothing results in rashes
• Avoid covering that are heavy and airtight
•  A cap in which to sleep should be of knitted wool
• Napkins must be soft and absorbent
• Avoid using safety pin
• It is better not to have any string around his neck
• Clothes should be washed in homes and not by dhobi
• Clothes should be dried well in sunlight
• Should not use tight elastic in their underwear. Elastic may cause rashes and itching

10.3.7 Rewards and punishments

• Rewards means any form of appreciation for an attainment of action
• Rewards can be in the form of praises, hugs, kisses and materials
• Rewards should be educational and motivational in nature
• Rewards enhances children’s cognitive development
• Punishment is to put the child in a right path
• Punishment should not be frequent
• Punishment should be given soon after the misdeed
• Teach the children to differentiate right from the wrong
• Reason out and talk with children in appropriate ways

3.8 Habit formation

Habit is an accustomed way of doing things. It is the name given to the behavior which often repeated becomes automatic. The first time an act is performed slowly and may entail considerable thought. The second time, the act is performed with less thought and more quickly. As repetition follows, less and less thought is required and finally the act becomes like a reflex

Role of parents

• Get the child started with the correct habit right from the very beginning
• Ensure that the child has adequate opportunity to follow the right habit
• Direct every emotional prompting and experience towards forming the desired habits
• Motivation should be kept high in the early stage of learning
• Maintain training regularly because no habit results when the effort is irregular

Breaking an undesirable habit

Every child has few or more undesirable habits. Hence breaking an undesirable habit is of a great concern for parents. The below given techniques are effective to break the undesirable habits

• Substitution method – parents should try to prevent undesirable habit by simultaneously replacing it with another response
• Change of cue method – Remove the child from the place the habit is developed and keep him/her in an entirely new atmosphere
• Toleration method – It is the gradual substitution of an undesirable habit with a desirable one

4. Influence of child rearing on the development of children

• Children brought up at one parent/divorcee families are with problems such as insecure, prone to bad habits, unable to solve problems and more of academic failures
• Children of democratic parents are rated as responsible, ambitious, emotionally mature, popular with peers, persevering, helpful, leadership qualities, interesting, competent, understanding, tried new things and sympathetic (SuriaKanthi)
• Children of authoritarian family are inactive, aimless, selfish, little brats and an introvert
• Girl children of permissive parents are aggressive, aimless with unsocialising personality problems, but boys are affected more. They exhibited selfishness, aggressive, evasive, aimless, uninteresting and withdrawn( Diana Baumrind)
• In another research, it was found that children from democratic atmosphere were socially outgoing, had emotional control, are well –behaved, excelled in activities. Children from permissive – indulgence homes are relatively inactive, lacking in originality and has inferior social status
• Breast fed children are grown better in height and weight and less in mortality and morbidity rate morbidity and mortality rates are higher among artificially fed babies
• Too early and very late weaning affects the child’s personality development in later years. Frend, the psychologist stated that thumb sucking is the outcome of improper feeding and weaning practices
• Premature or severe toilet training may affect the childs’ long term adjustment adversely.

The problem children manifested symptoms such as conduct disturbances, delayed motor development, speech problems, physical symptoms and emotional problems such as unnecessary fear, defiance, continuation of wetting(masturbation)

Conclusion

Child rearing practices are significant in shaping an individual’s personality. Child rearing is a creative art of a parent through which a child can be moulded into a better individual in every aspect. Becoming a parent is one of the most rewarding experience in one’s life. Having a child and rearing is not only a human experience but also the most demanding and responsible act. Child rearing practices are the transmission of the tradition, beliefs, culture and cognitive actions from parents to the offspring. Since, human babies are most vulnerable compared to babies of all other animal species, dependent on care taker for shelter, food, personal cleanliness and socialization. The best aptitude of the parents towards the rearing of children forms a good attitude