4 Research Foundation in Organisational Behaviour

Neha Dangi

epgp books

 

 

1. Learning objectives

2.Introduction

3. Research Methods in Organisational Behaviour

3.1 Quantitative Designs

1. Correlational Research

2. Survey

3. Factor Analysis

3.2 Qualitative Designs

1. Field Study

2. Interview

3.3 Miscellaneous Designs

1. Archival Research

2. Longitudinal Study

3. Case Study

4. Experiment

4. Techniques of Organisational Research

4.1 Sociometry

4.2 Position Analysis

4.3 Communication Analysis

4.4 Discretionary Analysis

4.5 Comparative Analysis

5. Summary

 

 

1.  Learning objectives:

 

The basic objectives of this module are:

  • To study the basic concepts of Research.
  • To study the Quantitative Research Designs.
  • To knowabout the Qualitative Research Designs. To learn about the Miscellaneous Designs.
  • To study the techniques of Organisational Research.

 

2. Introduction

 

Research may be defined as the systematic collection of information and facts. The main objective of research is to help an individual to search the truth.

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Research always adds to the continuing knowledge. It supports certain theories, opposes others and also recommends some new theories to replace those that cannot be sustained. The way of communication of a researcher is by using their own terminology. This terminology of research has been discussed as under:-

 

Variable: A variable may be defined as a common characteristic which can be examined and is subject to change. For example, Job satisfaction among employees, work stress, personality, productivity of employees, etc.

 

Hypothesis: Hypothesis may be defined as a tentative assumption of the relationship between two or more variables under study. It remains a tentative assumption until it is tested by doing an empirical research. For example, an assumption that by taking a part in the athletic meet of the college, a person can grab a top executive position in a big company is making hypothesis.

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Dependent Variable: The variable which is being explained by the researcher is known as dependent variable. It is a response that is being affected by the presence of an independent variable. The examples of dependent variables in organisational research are job satisfaction, productivity, absenteeism, turnover, etc.

 

Independent Variable: The variable which is responsible for bringing about an assumed change in dependent variable is known as independent variable. The examples of independent variables in organisational research are motivation, rewards, selection methods, leadership style, experience, etc.

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Controlling Variable: The variable which decreases the effect of independent variable on the dependent variable is known as controlling variable.

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Causality: Causality implies cause and effect relationship between the variables. A change in independent variable will cause a change in dependent variable. For example, behind happiness of an employee there can be an assumed cause of high productivity of that employee.

 

3. Research Methods in Organisational Behaviour

 

Research is very important in every field as without it answers to problems will merely be on the basis of presumptions. Organisational behaviour uses various research procedures for the study of behavioural problems. The researchers in organisational behaviour make use of both quantitative and qualitative research designs for conducting their research work.

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These research designs have been discussed as under:-

 

3.1 Quantitative Designs

 

1.      Correlational Research

2.      Survey

3.      Factor Analysis

 

3.2 Qualitative Designs

 

1.      Field Study

2.      Interview

 

3.3 Miscellaneous Designs (Both Quantitative and Qualitative)

 

1.   Archival Research

2.      Longitudinal Study

3.      Case Study

4.      Experiment

 

3.1         Quantitative Designs

 

The popular quantitative research designs that are being used in behavioural research are as follows:-

 

1.    Correlational Research

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The relationship between two or more variables is termed as ‘Correlation’. Productivity, communication, leadership styles, job satisfaction, motivation are all variables in organisational behaviour. All correlations are practically calculated with the use of Pearson product-moment correlation. The abbreviation used is r and it ranges from 0 to 1. The number 0 shows no correlation and number 1 shows a perfect correlation. Therefore, greater the number stronger will be the relationship between the variables. A negative correlation implies that when one variable increases the other variable decreases. One can make prediction of the amount of one variable more accurately by knowing the level of the other variable if the correlation between the two variables is higher. For example, if the correlation coefficient between training and motivation level of employees is greater than 1 or 1, then one can easily predict the amount of training given to the employees and the motivation level of employees. Correlational research tells us the mathematical relationship between the two variables. It doesn’t tell the cause or reason for the correlation between the two variables. For example, If there is high degree of correlation between the monetary incentives given to employees and their productivity, then we can predict an employee’s productivity on the basis of monetary benefits given to them-one getting more benefits will be more productive and the one getting less benefits will be least productive. But one cannot determine the cause or reason behind this correlation because monetary benefits cannot be the only factor that can lead to higher productivity. There may be some third variable such as attitude of employees that can be held responsible for increase in their productivity.

 

2.    Survey: The most popular method for the collection of data in research in organisational behaviour is conducting a survey. A survey is conducted with the help of a questionnaire in which the written responses of the respondents are being recorded.

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A questionnaire’s merits and demerits have been discussed as under:–

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Merits of a Questionnaire

 

1) Economical: It is the most economical way of getting written responses from a large group of individuals. A set of questions can be drafted and several copies of those pages can be produced and distributed at a low-cost.

 

2) Uniform Procedure: There is a uniform procedure of asking the questions to every respondent.

 

3) Wide Coverage: A large number of individuals can be covered with the help of a questionnaire.

 

Demerits of a Questionnaire

 

1) Rigidity: Questionnaires tend to be rigid or inflexible. Sometimes, the information doesn’t give the idea which an investigator wants as the questions are in ’Yes’ or ‘No’ form. This problem can be solved if these are designed in a skilful manner.

 

2) Subject to Demand: The respondent, sometimes, tries to interpret the questions from the wording, title, and effect of earlier questions and give their answers accordingly. Thus, a questionnaire is prone to demand.

 

3) Negligence in Designing and Administration: Sometimes, there is negligence in design and administration of a questionnaire because of its ease in writing.

 

4) Incomplete Responses: The respondents do not provide complete answers to questions and sometimes, they return the questionnaire without duly filled responses to the questions.

 

5) Wrong Interpretation: There is also a chance of wrong interpretation of questions by the respondents even if proper care has been taken by the researcher in framing the questions.

 

3. Factor Analysis: Factor Analysis may be defined as a statistical measure which shows the extent to which two or more variables are related. It also reveals the amount of clusters which exists in a group of variables by exhibiting the variables which are linked with group. It means which variables are so powerfully correlated with each other that they denote some common characteristic, skill or factor. For example: Let’s take a group of employees and the five variables which are to be measured viz. performance, motivation, incentives, age and health. Make an assumption that the first three variables are strongly correlated and they are not related with the last two variables. Thus, factor analysis shows the extent to which the three variables viz. performance, motivation and incentive will form a cluster which is termed as “loading”.

 

3.2 Qualitative Designs

 

1. Field Study: The observation of an individual or an animal in a natural environment is known as field study. This method is used in routine when a research is to be done in organisational behaviour to find out the correlation between two variables. In case of field survey the individuals are ignorant that the researcher is observing them. This fact has raised some moral questions when the subject of research is human-beings.

 

2.  Interview: Interview is the most common and most popular qualitative research design which is being used in organisational behaviour research. The researchers in organisational behaviour use this method to examine organisations at the top, middle and lower levels.

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There are several merits and demerits of interview which has been discussed below:-

 

Merits of an Interview

 

1)  High Response Rate: In an interview the response rate is high as a respondent cannot avoid the interviewer. A respondent can also be approached via telephone.

 

2) Face to Face Conversation: There is a face to face conversation between the interviewer and the respondents which helps in making an evaluation of the respondent’s self-confidence, mind-set, level of nervousness. The physical features such as dressing sense, postures, gestures and grooming can also be seen via an interview.

 

3) Complete Answers to Questions: Complete answers to questions can be obtained with the help of an interview by setting up a connection with the respondents.

 

4) High Flexibility: A structured interview contains a pre decided set of questions which are to asked from every respondent. There is rigidity in this case. On the other hand, semi-structure and unstructured interviews are flexible as an interviewer can ask any questions from the respondents.

 

Demerits of an Interview

 

1)  Lack of Standardisation: There is no standard procedure of taking an interview. It starts in the same manner but the interviewer is bound to change according to the behaviour of the respondents. Thus, there is lack of standardisation in case of an interview.

 

2) Biasness: An interviewer can be biased while interviewing a respondent on the basis of the physical appearance of the respondent. This prevents to bring any change.

 

3) Expensive: It is considered to be a very expensive method of collecting information.

 

4) Uneasiness of Respondents: Respondents show uneasiness or nervousness as an interview is a face to face conversation which hampers the responses which are needed to gather the information.

 

5) Uncertainty of being a Reliable Predictor: The success of a respondent in the interview cannot be considered to be a trustworthy predictor of his/her success on the job.

 

3.3 Miscellaneous Designs (Both Quantitative and Qualitative)

 

1. Archival Research: The type of research which involves the examination of people’s present as well as past behaviour is known as Archival Research. In other words, it is a method of collecting data from sources that already exist.The popular examples of archival research are census records or survey data that was collected in the past. For example, In order to determine that whether new machinery produces less wasted motion, the researcher paints the floor area of both old and new layouts with short life paint. After a month, the floor wear and tear around the two layouts can be compared.

 

2. Longitudinal Study: A longitudinal study also known as longitudinal survey or panel study is a quasi-experimental research design which consist of repeated observations of the same variables over a long period of time, usually decades. These studies are frequently used in psychology for the study of evolving trends over the life span and in sociology to study life events during lifetimes or generations. Longitudinal studies use the same people and the differences which are perceived in those people are expected to be the result of cultural differences through generations. Thus, these studies make observations more accurate and are also applied in various other fields such as medicine, social sciences, advertising, etc. A common example of longitudinal research is the Hawthorne study of a period of 12 years. Such type of examples is very exceptional in research in organisational behaviour.

 

3. Case Study: A report about a person, group, or situation that has been studied is termed as Case Study. A case study about a group will describe the behaviour of each member of the group. The researches based on case studies are very popular in many disciplines and professions such as psychology, anthropology, sociology, political science, clinical science, social work and administrative work.

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4. There are generally four types of case studies:-

 

i. Descriptive case studies: Such type of case studies uses one or two occurrences of an event to display the prevailing situation.

 

ii. Pilot or Exploratory case studies: These are the case studies which are performed before conducting a large scale investigation

 

iii. Cumulative case studies: Such type of case studies aggregates information from different sites collected at different times.

 

iv. Critical Instance case studies: Such type of case studies examine one or more sites either to examine a situation of distinctive interest or to test a highly generalized or universal statement. It is useful in providing answers to questions of cause and effect.

 

5.  Experiment: The procedure which is carried out to support, disprove, or authenticate a hypothesis is termed as Experiment. They provide understanding of cause and effect by validating what outcome arises when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments usually include controls that aimed at minimising the effects of variables other than the single independent variable. It will increase the reliability of the results usually through a comparison between control measurements and other measurements. If in an experiment, the controls work as per the expectations of the researcher, then it can be concluded that the experiment worked out as projected, and the results are due to the effect of the tested variable. There are mainly four types of controls which can be explained as under:-

 

i. Randomization: In this type of control, the groups that obtain different experimental treatments are determined randomly. It safeguards that the differences are distributed equally thus correcting systematic errors. For example, the researcher divides ten employees into two groups. The list of employees is prepared in an alphabetical manner and first five employees of the list are assigned to one group and the other five to the second group. Now, an observation is to be made whether the performance of the two groups would be the same or not?

 

ii. Matching: It is a statistical technique which is used to estimate the effect of behaviour by comparing the treated and non-treated units in an experiment. In other words, this concept of matching is used when random treatment is not given. This concept has been supported by Donald Rubin.

 

iii. Experimenter Bias: A researcher has some emotions regarding the results of an experiment. There are chances that he/she unintentionally may affect the results of the study. This affect or influence is termed as Experimenter bias or E-bias. It can be controlled or monitored by appointing a specialist or expert to conduct the trials and this process is known as blind control. It means a researcher who is not informed about the objective and expectations of the study are not likely to create biasness.

 

iv. Control of Demand Characteristics: Demand characteristics have relation with the fact that with each and every involvement there is an implicit demands or potentials. It has been made clear from the Hawthorne experiment that it was the demand characteristics of involvement rather than the changes in the work environment which had an impact on the performance of employees. In order to control demand characteristics the researcher may adopt a double-blind control in which neither the experimenter nor the contributors identify which is the treatment and which is the control and it should be certified that instructions to the contributors should be kept as impartial as possible.

 

4. Techniques of Organisational Research

Sociometry: In this technique of organisational research, all the members of a group are requested to point out their relationship on a particular dimension with every other member of the group. For example, an assignment can be given to them to name those people whom they like and from whom they want to get something done.

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Another task can be with the name of each member providing the number of messages sent in the last one month. The researcher, by merging all the answers or responses, will be able to figure out the relationships, skill ratings and effectiveness of message.

 

Position Analysis: In position analysis, a comparison is done by the researcher between the requirements of the job and the capabilities of the person working on that job. The main objective of such type of research is to minimise the mismatches and to make an finest match between the capabilities and the job requirements. In case of any inconsistencies there arises the need to make changes in the task or reallocating of such tasks to the employees. For example, If a manager is made responsible for evaluating the performance of the sales representatives but he/she doesn’t possess the knowledge and skills of computer system and can evaluate only on the basis of sales reports of a quarter. In such a case, a manager needs to appoint someone who can make an interpretation of that data or should learn how to operate a computer system.

 

Communication Analysis: In communication analysis, the path of the message is being tracked by the researcher in order to identify at what stage there arises a blockage or delay in the message. For instance, in a firm which is being disturbed by regular chitchats and by grievances related to poor communication, the employees are directed to take part in a job or assignment or project in order to identify the degree and nature of communication gaps. They are provided a form of ‘communication record’ in which a listing is to be done of each hour of every working day for a week. A recording is to be made in the form about the type of messages received and about the level of person from whom the message was received. On the basis of such information, management analyses and tries to find out the changes which are to be made in the communication system. A copy of the report after the changes is sent to all the members.

 

Discretionary Analysis: The technique of discretionary analysis helps in evaluating the position of employees by making an analysis of their freedom to work without any supervision or restrictions. This technique is known as discretionary analysis as it measures the freedom of choice or discretion of employees. For example, the employees may be questioned that in how much time they would be able to complete a given assignment without the supervision of their superiors. The employees’ proficiency will be higher if he will be provided with the freedom of choice or working without any direct control of superiors.

 

Comparative Analysis: A comparative analysis of the organisation can be made with some other organisation. For example, the employees may have complaints regarding their non-involvement in management decisions. The president of union can make a survey in other organisations that whether they are allowing their employees to participate in the management decisions. On the basis of that survey, a representation can be made before the management to appoint a representative on the behalf of employees that can be involved in the decisions of the management.

 

5. Summary

 

Thus, it can be concluded that there are various research designs which can be applied in doing research in organisational behaviour. Quantitative Designs include correlational research, survey and factor analysis. On the other hand, Qualitative designs include field study and interview. There are also mixed research designs such as Archival research, longitudinal studies, case studies and experiments. The various techniques of organisational research are sociometry, position analysis, communication analysis, discretionary analysis and comparative analysis.

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Few important sources to learn more about Research Foundation in Organisational Behaviour:

  • Organisational Behaviour by P.SubbaRao, published by Himalaya Publishing House.
  • Organisational Behaviour by L.M. Prasad, published by Sultan Chand & Sons.
  • Organisational Behaviour by Stephen P. Robbins, published by Prentice-Hall India.
  • Organisational Behaviour by K Ashwathappa, published by Himalaya Publishing House.
  • Organisational Behaviour byShashi K Gupta and Rosy Joshi, published byKalyani Publishers.
  • Management Concepts and Organisational Behaviour by N.K.Sahni, published byKalyani Publishers.
  • Organizational Behaviour-an evidence based approach by Fred Luthans, published by McGraw Hill Education, 12th Edition.
  • Organisational behaviour-foundation, realities and challenges by Debra L. Nelson and James Campbell Quick, Published by South-Western Cengage Learning, 5th Edition.
  • Fundamentals of International Organizational Behaviour by Simon L. Dolan and Tony Lingham, Published by Sara Books Pvt. Ltd.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behavior#Research_methods_used