29 Communication Theories

Dr. Ritu Bajaj and Dr.Shafali Nagpal

31.1  Learning Objective

31.2 Introduction

31.3 Communication Theories

31.4 Communication Theory Framework

31.5 Classical Theories

31.6 Summary

After completion of this module, you would be able to :

1. Understand the theories of communication
2. Able to learn Communication Theory Framework
3. Understand Classical theories of Communication

Theories of communication

The theories presented here are related to communication. Students can use these theories as a rich source for a better understanding of the theoretical fieldwork of communication. Choosing a theory for an assignment or report is made easier, since you are able to ‘browse’ through the different theories. All theories which are selected are used in the courses of Communication Studies. Stay critical when you use a theory, because theories are subjectively measured. A lot of theories are mentioned below, make your own judgment about which theories are most helpful and think why they are helpful.

A theory that deals with the technology of the transmission of information (as through the written word or a computer) between people, people and machines, or machines and machines There is some sense of the impact of telecommunications and computerization (almost all writers have gone on-line with something by now after all), but few of these fictions seem shaped in any serious way by information or communication theory. — Robert Coover, The New York Times Book Review, 18 Mar. 1984 Ms. Medsger said the three major trends that supervisors found most disturbing were the emphasis on faculty members with academic rather than journalistic experience, the elimination of journalism as a stand-alone major and the increased emphasis on communication theory at the expense of basic reporting and writing skills.

Communication Theories

Theories of communication majorly depend on channel of communication. In earlier times, press/writings were the major means of communication and played key role in transferring the ideas, beliefs, stories etc. slowly press evolved and was used extensively for communication.

Many theories of communication developed during this time.

Actor-Network Theory (ANT)

Actor-Network Theory suggests that human and non-human factors are equally influential in the success of technological innovation and scientific knowledge-creation. The theory looks at how networks are formed and how these networks contribute to these successes. It suggests that no one person or thing is solely responsible for these advancements. Therefore, both an actor and a network are responsible for achieving these outcomes.

Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST)

Groups and organizations create rules and resources which are defined as structures. These structures form social systems which develop a life of their own. The quality of the structure affects decision making, and decisions also affect the structure.

Agenda Setting Theory

Agenda Setting Theory states that mass media organizations determine what the general population considers newsworthy by deciding how much attention a news story receives. The term salience transfer is commonly used and refers to the ability of the media to transfer their agendas onto the public.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive Dissonance is the psychological conflict that results from holding two contradictory or incompatible beliefs or attitudes. For example, one can like a person, but disapprove of their habits. The theory suggests that a person looks for balance in their beliefs. Therefore, in order to reduce dissonance, one will avoid hearing opposing viewpoints or change their beliefs to match their actions.

Communication Accommodation Theory

Communication Accommodation Theory describes when people accommodate or adjust their communication styles to others. These changes in verbal and nonverbal styles are done through two ways: divergence and convergence. Divergence is used to highlight group identity through touting the differences of the group they identify with. Divergence is often used by groups with strong ethnic or racial pride. Convergence is used more often by powerless individuals for social approval and focuses on matching the communication styles of the person with whom they are speaking to.

Confirmation Bias

Confirmation Bias is a theory which explains why people view the world selectively. It states that people continue to view the world selectively by choosing information and media which reinforces their beliefs.

Constructivism

People who are more cognitively complex will be more successful communicators because they possess the ability to create customized and sophisticated messages that pursue multiple communication goals.

Cultivation Theory

Cultivation Theory argues media shapes a persons sense of reality. Because many acquire information through mediated sources rather than direct experience, their world view becomes influenced by these sources. For example, Cultivation Theory suggests that people who would be defined as heavy television viewers see the world as more violent that it actually is.

Cultural Studies

Cultural Studies theorists suggest that mass media represents ideologies of the dominant class in a society. They believe that media is influenced by profit, since corporations run the media. Cultural Studies theorists are curious about the effect of power on culture.

Dramatism

Dramatism states that life is drama. Therefore, one can understand a speaker’s motive through the dramatistic pentad of act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose. The greatest motive of rhetoric is to purge guilt, and there can only be persuasion if the audience identifies with the speaker.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

The Elaboration Likelihood Model looks at how attitudes are formed and changed. It suggest there are two routes of persuasion. The central route is where attitudes are changed through a logical thought process. This route requires more attention, but is also allows for the major change. The peripheral route uses surface characteristics, such as speaker’s credibility, to judge the message. This route creates smaller shifts in attitude.

Face Negotiation Theory

Face Negotiation Theory highlights conflict style differences between collectivist and individualistic cultures. Collectivist cultures place value on the group and therefore adopt a conflict style of avoiding or integrating to give others mutual face. Individualistic cultures place value on the individual and in an attempt to protect self-face, they adopt a dominating conflict style.

Framing

“Frames” are defined as the way in which we interpret media presented to us, and that these frames function as a way to organize social meanings. Since the media decides what we view and how we view it, they also influence the way in which we interpret information. In a sense, they tell us what to think about, and how to think about it.

Genderlect

Genderlect theory sees masculine and feminine communication styles as two different cultural dialects — neither of which is more superior than the other. Genderlect states that these forms of communication are simply different in their focus: masculine discourse is based on building status and independence, while feminine conversation is used as a way to build rapport and connection.

Groupthink

Groupthink is when groups make faulty decisions because they fail to critically analyzing their options and weigh alternatives. This typically occurs in highly cohesive groups who are more concerned with maintaining group unity than finding the best option.

Hypodermic Needle Theory

The Hypodermic Needle Theory, also known as the ‘magic bullet’ theory, says the media has a powerful and direct effect on audiences by ‘injecting’ them with messages. The Hypodermic Needle Theory no longer carries the respect it once did since its accuracy was found to be questionable.

Muted Group Theory

Muted Group Theory states that because language is man-made women remain reduced and excluded. Because words and norms have been created by men, women are disadvantaged in public. As women become less muted and more vocal, the dominant position of males in society will diminish.

The Narrative Paradigm

The Narrative Paradigm suggests that we as a people are storytelling animals. It states that instead of using traditional logic, we are more open to judging the credibility of a speaker through narrative logic, which analyzes if their stories are well put together (coherence) and sound true (fidelity). Narrative logic allows those who are not educated in oratory and persuasion to make judgments; therefore, allowing for a more democratic system.

Priming

Priming refers to the ability of the media to control the interpretation of new information by feeding the public prior information. This prior context set frames of reference within the audience members, which ultimately effects their judgments. For example, the media has primed us as to what constitutes a credible person.

Proxemix

Proxemic theory looks at how different cultures develop and define space. On an unconscious level people internalize three types of space: 1) intimate space: our personal “bubble” for friends and intimates relationships; 2) social and consultative spaces: the space for routine social interactions with acquaintances and strangers; 3) public space: the space where impersonal and anonymous interactions occur. Each culture creates their own distances for what they feel is appropriate.

Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory posits an ‘economic’ exchange for in interpersonal relationships. Meaning, the relationships is enhanced by satisfying each others self-interest. In this theory, self-interest is not regarded as a bad thing, but rather as a concept that builds the relationship.

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory argues that people learn from each other through observing, imitating, and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory explains how human behavior can be shaped by continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.

Social Penetration Theory

Social Penetration Theory looks at how superficial relationships evolve to intimate relationships. The theory states it is a gradual evolution due primarily to self-disclosure between parties. But, while this self-disclosure can be effective in creating intimate relationships, it can also leave one or more persons vulnerable.

Spiral of Silence

The Spiral of Silence theory states that people are less likely to express their opinions if they are the minority. This is because they fear they will be isolated by the majority and suffer social rejection.

Standpoint Theory

Standpoint Theory claims that each person is seated in a different rank among the social hierarchy. Because of this, each person views the social climate from a different vantage point, which only provides a small look at the social whole. But the theory also claims that those who are lower on the social ladder tend to have a greater understanding of the social whole, rather than those higher up.

Symbolic Interactionism Theory

Symbolic Interaction Theory suggests that the concept of self is created by three principles: 1) Meaning: that we act towards and things according to the meanings we apply to them. 2) Language: that we negotiate meaning through symbols. 3) Thought: that thought modifies our interpretations. Symbolic interactionism implies that without communication there would be no self concept.

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Theory of Planned Behavior is the same as Theory of Reasoned Action in that it says personal attitudinal judgments and social-normative considerations influence a person’s intentions to perform a behavior, but TPB adds a third element: perceived behavioral control. This element being the perception of how easy or difficult it is to perform the behavior.

Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)

Theory of Reasoned Action looks at how behaviors can be influenced by influencing a person’s intentions. TRA states that two main factors tell a person whether or not to perform a behavior:

1. personal attitudinal judgments: the evaluation of the action; and, 2) social-normative considerations: what one believes others think they should do.

Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Uncertainty Reduction Theory states that when strangers meet, their primary goal is to reduce levels of uncertainty. Uncertainty meaning, being unsure of how to behave (or how the other person will behave), and unsure of what to think of the other person. For example, if they like the person or do not like the person. According to this theory, they will use communication to reduce this uncertainty.

Uses and Gratifications Theory

The Uses and Gratifications Theory assumes audiences actively seek out media to satisfy individual needs. With this assumption, the Uses and Gratifications Theory looks to answer three questions: what do people do with the media, what are their underlying motives for using said media, and what are the pros and cons of this individual media use.

Communication Theory Framework

Let us examine communication and communication theory through the following viewpoints:

Mechanistic – The mechanistic view point says that communication is simply the transmission of information from the first party to the second party. The first party being the sender and the second party being the receiver.

Psychological – According to the psychological view point, communication is simply not the flow of information from the sender to the receiver but actually the thoughts, feelings of the sender which he tries to share with the recepients. It also includes the reactions, feelings of the receiver after he decodes the information.

Social – The social view point considers communication as a result of interaction between the sender and the receiver. It simply says that communication is directly dependent on the content of the speech. “How one communicates” is the basis of the social view point.

Systemic – The systemic view point says that communication is actually a new and a different message which is created when various individuals interpret it in their own way and then reinterpret it and draw their own conclusion.

Critical – The critical view point says that communication is simply a way with the help of which an individual expresses his power and authority among other individuals.

The study of communication and mass media has led to the formulation of many theories: structural and functional theories believe that social structures are real and function in ways that can be observed objectively; cognitive and behavioral theories tend to focus on psychology of individuals; interactionist theories view social life as a process of interaction; interpretive theories uncover the ways people actually understand their own experience; and critical theories are concerned with the conflict of interests in society and the way communication perpetuates domination of one group over another .

 The earliest theories were those propounded by Western theorists Siebert, Paterson and Schramm in their book Four Theories Of the Press (1956). These were termed “normative theories” by McQuail in the sense that they “mainly express ideas of how the media ought to or can be expected to operate under a prevailing set of conditions and values.” Each of the four original or classical theories is based on a particular political theory or economic scenario.

CLASSICAL THEORIES

Authoritarian Theory

According to this theory, The state cannot control the mass media. Under an Authoritarian approach in Western Europe, freedom of thought was jealously criticized and controlled by rulers, who were concerned with the emergence of a new middle class and were worried about the effects of printed matter on their thought process. They tried to control the freedom of expression. The result was advocacy of complete dictatorship. The voice of subordinate always controlled by the superior that is why they did not respect their superiors. Censorship of the press was justified on the ground that the State always took precedence over the individual’s right to freedom of expression.

This theory advocated by the authoritarian philosophy of Plato (407 – 327 B.C), who thought that the State was safe only in the hands of a few wise men. Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679), a British academician, argued that the power to maintain order was sovereign and individual objections were to be ignored means the individual doesn’t have any right to oppose the instructions given by the authority. Engel, a German thinker further reinforced the theory by stating that freedom came into its supreme right only under Authoritarianism.

The world has been witness to authoritarian means of control over media by both dictatorial and democratic governments.

Libertarianism or Free Press Theory

This movement was based on the right of an individual, and advocated absence of restraint. The basis of this theory dated back to 17th century England when the printing press initially established it was possible to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at cheap rates. The State was thought as a major source of interference on the rights of an individual and his property. Libertarians regarded taxation as institutional theft. Popular will (vox populi) was granted precedence over the power of State.

Lao Tzu, advocated this theory in the early 16th century philosopher, John Locke of Great Britain in the17th century, John Milton, the epic poet (“Aeropagitica“) and John Stuart Mill, an essayist (“On Liberty“). Milton in Aeropagitica in 1644, referred to a self righting process if free expression is permitted “let truth and falsehood grapple.” In 1789, the French, in their Declaration of The Rights of Man, wrote “Every citizen may speak, write and publish freely.” Out of such doctrines came the idea of a “free marketplace of ideas.” George Orwell defined libertarianism as “allowing people to say things you do not want to hear”. Libertarians argued that the press should be seen as the Fourth Estate reflecting public opinion.

Social Responsibility Theory

Press Theory was criticized virulently by Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Theodore Paterson. In their book Four Theories of Press, they stated “pure libertarianism is antiquated, outdated and obsolete.” They demanded for its replacement by the Social Responsibility theory. Applied in the United States by the Commission of The Freedom of Press, 1949. The commission found that the free market approach to press freedom had only increased the power of a single class and has not served the interests of the less well-off classes while the social responsibility theory is concerned with the major part of society. The emergence of radio, TV and film suggested the need for some means of accountability. Thus the theory advocated some obligation on the part of the media to society. A judicial mix of self regulation and state regulation and high professional standards were imperative. Then it became the modern variation in which the duty to one’s conscience was the primary basis of the right of free expression.

Soviet Media/Communist Theory

This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engel that “the ideas of the ruling classes are the ruling ideas”. It was thought that the entire mass media was saturated with bourgeois ideology. Lenin thought of private ownership as being incompatible with freedom of press and that modern technological means of information must be controlled for enjoying effective freedom of press. The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to educate the great masses of workers and not to give out information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as it was the only way the media would be able to cater to its interests.

Two more theories were later added as the “four theories of the press” were not fully applicable to the non-aligned countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, who were committed to social and economic development on their own terms. The two theories were:

Development Communication Theory

The important fact behind the genesis of this theory was that there can be no development without communication. Under the four classical theories, capitalism was legitimized, but under the Development communication theory, or Development Support Communication as it is otherwise called, the media undertook the role of carrying out positive developmental programmes, accepting restrictions and instructions from the State. The media subordinated themselves to political, economic, social and cultural needs. Hence the stress on “communication development” and “journalism development”. There was tacit support from the UNESCO for this theory. The weakness of this theory is that “development” is often equated with government propaganda.

Democratization/Democratic Participant Media Theory

This theory vehemently opposes the commercialization of modern media and its top-down non-participant character. The need for access and right to communicate is stressed. Bureaucratic control of media is decried.

Summary

In this module, we have studied theories of communication. It is a process of summarizing, assessing and developing the communication system which is reviewed on the basis of different communication technique to send or to receive the massage and act or react according to the requirement of job. In earlier times, press was the primary means of communication which has influenced in development of various theories of communication which are discussed in this module.

References

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• Gordon, G.N. (1975) Communications and Media. New York: Hastings House.
• Klapper, J.T. (1963) “Mass communication research: an old road resurveyed .” Public Opinion Q. 27 (Winter): 515-527.
• Lazarsfeld, P.F. (1972) “Administrative and critical communications research .” Reprinted in P. F. Lazarsfeld, Qualitative Analysis. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• Lerner, D. (1973) “Notes on communication and the nation state.” Public Opinion Q. 37, 3: 541-549.
• Lin, N. ( 1973) The Study of Human Communication. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
• Kootnz & O’Donnell, Principles of Management.
• J.S. Chandan, Management Concepts and Strategies.
• Kotler, P. (1991). Marketing Management. 7th ed. Prentice-Hall