27 Motivation

Dr. Sulakshna Dwivedi

1.      Learning Outcome

2.      Meaning  and Definition of motivation

3.      Characteristics of motivation

4.      Motivation and Inspiration

5.      Process of motivation

6.      Types of motivation

7.      Techniques of motivation

8.      Significance of motivation

9.      Summary

1.  Learning Outcome

After completing this module the students will be able to:

• Understand the concepts of motivation.
• Understand the differentiation between motivation and inspiration. Understand the process of the motivation.
• Describe the importance of the motivation. Get acquainted with types of motivation.
• Get to know about various techniques of motivation used in business

2. Introduction

Have you ever observed that why some people are very energetic towards their work, while, some are mediocre and some really works with a lackadaisical approach? In a classroom set up you must have observed some students are very eager, inquisitive and raring to go and involved with the class teacher while other are non- participating and dull in the class. Similarly, in organizational set up, some employees are very energetic as compared to others and scale up the hierarchical levels of an organization in a shorter span of time. So, what makes a person successful and others not. In common language, we call it energy, zest, enthusiasm, drive and sometime spark too. To be more precise, it is termed as motivation. So, what is motivation? Is it a force? Is it something transient? Is it a process? Is it inherent? Can we motivate somebody? If yes, then how? Is it an expensive process? How is it going to benefit an individual or an organization?

This module will answer all these questions.

3. Meaning and definition of motivation

Motivation has its origin from Latin word “movere” which means “to move”, “to drive” or “to drive forward” etc. That means something which drives someone to put their extra efforts to achieve some specific objective. Thus, motivation is a push factor for the completion of a task. Motivation raises one’s adrenal level and pushes him to work hard for a specific goal/motive.

Fred Luthans defined motivation as a “process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive”.

Here, the focus of Fred Luthans is on the need (physiological or psychological deficiency) that drives a particular behavior e.g. one is hungry or thirsty, so, obviously, he will have physiological symptoms that would drive a person to fulfill that need. If somebody is depressed or gloomy that means his mood and emotions would depict his psychological deficiency that would drive him to be joyful.

According to Stephen P. Robbins “motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of efforts toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort ability to satisfy some individual need”.

Here, the center of attention is on four words i.e.

• Willingness to exert high levels of efforts Organizational goals
• Effort and ability
• Satisfaction of individual need
• The impetus is again on satisfying a particular need and volition.

In the opinion of Gray and Starke “motivation is the result of processes, internal or external to the individual, that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action”.

Gray and Starke have emphasised on processes which are intrinsic to an individual (personality factors, attitude and beliefs) and extrinsic (organisational or environmental) that stimulate him to do something to achieve a specific goal.

According to Udai Parrek, “The term ‘motivation’ is used in two senses: general commitment to work and the specific psychological needs of an individual. The term needs and motives are used interchangeably”.

In the above definition, Udai Parrek has stressed that a motivated person would always be committed to whatever he takes up and the underlying cause of this commitment would be some specific psychological need of that particular individual.

Glueck explained motivation as “the inner state that energizes channels and sustains human behavior.”

According to Joe Kelly, “Motivation is a process where by needs instigate behavior directed towards the goals that can satisfy those needs.”

According to Vroom, “…..the term motivation refers to a process governing choices made by

persons or lower organisms among alternative forms of voluntary activity”.

According to Newstorm and Davis, “Work motivation is the set of internal and external forces that cause an employee to choose a course of action and engage in certain behaviour. Ideally, these behaviours will be directed at the achievement of an organisational goal. Work motivation is a complex combination of psychological forces within each person, and employers and vitally interested in three elements of it: Direction and focus of behaviour, Level of effort provided, Persistence of the behaviour.

On the basis of above definitions, we can deduce following characteristics of motivation.

4. Characteristics of Motivation

According to Mitchell, following are the four common characteristics of motivation,Motivation is an individual phenomenon Motivation is intentional Motivation is multifaceted

The aim of motivational theories is to predict behavior

Besides above given features, following characteristics can be inferred from various definitions.

• Motivation is based on unsatisfied needs
• Motivation is a cognitive process
• Motivation is an ongoing process
• Motivation is a driving force
• Motivation is the underlying cause of behavior
• Motivation is a complex phenomenon
• Motivation is multidimensional
• Motivation is responsible for direction, intensity and persistence of an individual for the accomplishment of a goal

Motivation is based on unsatisfied needs: A majority of definitions mainly focus on satisfaction of a particular need/motive. Thus motivation is always directed towards a need. These needs could be primary or secondary needs. Primary needs are those which are related to basic necessities in life like food, water, air safety. Secondary needs are also called higher order needs e.g. affiliation, self esteem and self actualization needs.

Motivation is cognitive process: As lot of thought process, analysis and evaluation is involved in deciding which specific need to be to be satisfied, how it will be satisfied and which course of action to choose from various other options, hence we can say motivation is based on cognitions.

Motivation is an ongoing process:  Motivation  is  definitely  a  continuous  and  ongoing process because human life is not based on one particular need/motive. After fulfillment of one need other need arises and the process of motivation go and on e.g. in social context once the  basic  needs  of  water,  air,  food  is  fulfilled  or  in  an  organizational  context  where after getting job one gets good salary and allowances and individual yearns for salary increments and then for promotion. So after fulfillment of lower order needs higher order needs become motivators and thus, this process of satisfying needs never therefore, we can say motivation is an ongoing process. ends,

Motivation is a driving force: Motivation drives or pushes an individual to exert efforts or to take a course of action and this driving force is directional as efforts lead towards fulfillment of specific goal.

Motivation is underlying cause of behavior: Every behavior is caused. According to Skinner, Behaviour is a function of consequences. If the consequences are desirable or enticing, obviously person will indulge in that behavior. So that luring consequence will act as motivator for a person. Hence, we can say motivation is the underlying cause of behavior.

Motivation is a complex phenomenon: Different things motivate an individual at different point of time and different people have varying motivators e.g. increase in salary motivates one individual but may not motivate the other person. One person may be motivated by recognition, praise, acceptance or approval but other may not want these. If somebody is in the dire need of money so according to his needs/motives or personality characteristics and social position, money will acts as a motivator but once a person has enough money, it will cease to act as motivator and hence he may be desirous of something else. Hence, motivation is a complex phenomenon. There is no quick fix rule that can be used across the board because of individuals are unique and they have individual differences.

Motivation is multidimensional: Sometime motivation comes from a belief (intrinsic), sometime, we need a push, may be positive or negative from outside to do something. Sometime money or material things motivate us at some point of time only, recognition, acceptance, approval, respect is enough for us to do marvelous job. Therefore, depending upon various psycho demographic factors, personality factors and factors in external environment like social, political, economic, geographic, ecological etc. help deciding motivator for an individual. Hence, taking into consideration all the factors and their permutation and combination will decide right motivator for an individual at a specific point of time.

Motivation is responsible for direction, intensity and persistence of an individual for the accomplishment of a goal: Motivation acts a deciding factor in direction, intensity and persistence towards goals. The level of motivation will give our behavior a direction that is goal for which one has to aim for with what intensity or strength or for how long one has keep their efforts intact in the fulfillment of goals. So motivation, the driving force gives the direction to the behavior and keep the momentum alive till the goal is achieved.

5.  Motivation and Inspiration

Although both the words are used interchangeably, yet there is a minute difference between the two. The difference between motivation and inspiration is that the latter comes first in sequence e.g. I heard motivational/Inspirational/words of somebody. I will not immediately get motivated, I will get inspired first. That means inspiration will invoke my thought first and then depending upon the intensities of my thoughts I will convert my thoughts into action and this is the way we define motivation a force or spark that drive/propel us to action. Thus, we can say inspiration is thought process and motivation deals with action component.

6. Importance of motivation

So what motivates a person? This question motivates the researchers and academicians to know the underlying reasons. Since time immemorial, various studies had been undertaken to know what motivates a person.

Antecedents are predictors of Motivation or drivers of motivation and they answer the question that ‘what makes a person motivated?’

In the history and various mythological studies, we can find various examples where people got motivated and did wonderful jobs e.g. in Ramayana (Indian Epic), where Lord Hanuman who was afraid to cross the sea to reach Lanka was motivated by Jamvant that he has all the abilities and powers to achieve the goal. The words of Jamvant aroused, drive and directed Lord Hanuman to do what he thought is just impossible.

So the most crucial thing in motivation is faith, belief and trust. Faith in your abilities, skills and efforts and trust and belief that specific goal is achievable with my skills, abilities and efforts. This is the basic requirement to do anything in life, but an iota of doubt or suspicion or negative thought can mar this belief and thus reduces the motivation level, thus an effort, which further reduces the motivational level, and finally the performance and achievement of goals.

In the words of Swami Vivekananda, Thoughts travel far. Any ill thought about anybody would reach to other person and revert back to you with great accuracy.

An anonymous saying goes like this.

Beware of your thoughts as they become your words beware of your words as they become your actions. Beware of your actions as they become your character beware of you’re your character as they become your destiny.

Rhonda Bryane in her bestseller book “The Secret” has written, If you commit to something very positively and you make sure no negative thought could dare enter your mind then whole universe conspires to make the happening of the goal.

Besides, positive faith or belief what else motivate an individual and make him successful.

According to Newstorm and Davis

• Knowledge x Skill = Ability
• Attitude x Situation= Motivation
• Ability x Motivation = Potential Performance
• Potential Performance x Resource x Opportunity = Result

Knowledge means knowing “What of Something”. Skill means knowledge “How of Something”. If we have both knowledge and skill that makes us able. Take a case of a woodcutter, Does he know what sorts of woods are available or required, if he knows, that means he is knowledgeable. Second factor comes, does he know how to cut the wood or use his axe, if yes, that means he is skillful. If he has both i.e. knowledge and skill that means he is able to do his job.

Second equation is about attitude and situation. Does he want to go to jungle and cut the woods (willingness/volition), if yes, that means he has positive attitude towards his work and second factor in second equation is situation e.g. the right jungle and the right wood is available or technically speaking ‘is situation conducive or not’. If situation is conducive and he has a positive attitude too that means he will feel motivated to do his job.

The third equation is about product of first two equations i.e. he is able as well as motivated that means he has a potential for performance but that doesn’t necessarily leads to performance/results or success. Besides, potential he should get an opportunity and he should have resources to achieve success. In woodcutter’s case, the resource is a sharpened axe and opportunity is, ‘can presently he go to cut the woods? Or is it raining outside’, meaning hereby that can he avail the opportunity. If yes, he will definitely and successfully bring the results. Therefore, one needs to have all these factors to bring the desired results. Hence, the role of motivation is not less than any other factor and all are equally important.

Over the period of time various theories, models have been propounded, criticized and revised to explain this widely studied topic which is very essential for other vital outcomes in the organizations, institutes and in personal lives too. Motivation is the antecedent to various other outcomes e.g. commitment (Petcharak, 2002), job satisfaction, loyalty, allegiance, organizational citizenship behavior, discipline, punctuality, orderliness and performance (Rai, 2004) and finally productivity and profitability of an organization.

7. Process of motivation

But the question is how this motivation originates. The process of motivation starts with needs or expectations. As all the individuals are different and unique and because of these individual differences, different people have different needs. Even one individual has different needs at different point of time. Various authors have given different categories of needs that drive an individual to satisfy those needs. These may be physiological, psychological, safety, affiliation, achievement, self esteem, self actualization etc. Physiological needs embrace hunger, thirst and other biological needs; Safety needs includes security of life and job etc. The affiliation needs consist of need for association; achievement needs consists of need to excel in particular work sphere; self esteem comprise of need for self respect, dignity and status and self actualization need is about the basic purpose of life other than the material motives.

According to Farren, human life revolves around following 12 needs viz. family, health and well- being, work/career, economic, learning, home/shelter, social relationships, spirituality, community, leisure, mobility, and environment/safety etc.

Therefore, the supremacy is of a need. Need Deficiency creates tension in the mind of an individual and thus creates a drive or push in him/her to do something to overcome the deficiency of that particular need. Thus, force him to do something in the direction to achieve specific objectives or to fulfill that particular need or expectation.

Figure 1: Process of Motivation

Source: Adapted from “Management and Organizational Behaviour” by Mullins

So the main elements in the process of motivation are

• Need deficiency Tension
• Drive
• Direction
• Achievement of goals

Even, some of the authors have gone one step aside to explain the motivation process model. The other main case is when drive is not so strong to convert efforts into accomplishment of goals then there comes defence mechanisms which includes strategies like

• Fixation
• Withdrawal
• Aggression
• Regression

When due to some reasons, the subject or individual is not able to accomplish the desired goals. Some sort of barrier/blockage comes into the way of an individual in accomplishment of goals; this may be due to decline in direction, persistence and intensity of motivation. At this point of time an individual take two routes either he get frustrated or indulge in constructive behavior. In constructive behavior, he may take the route of problem solving and restructuring.

Problem-Solving: In problem–solving, an individual will analyze the barriers and try to remove barriers or blockages/obstacles e.g. a student is unable to get a job despite his good marks in his degrees. In problem-solving, he will reassess his abilities, skills and attitudes. May be he will find that he is good in academics but lacks in communication skills or reasoning. So after analyzing his skills and abilities he will work hard on that particular sphere where he is weak.

Restructuring/Compromise: In restructuring he will again analyze his KSA (Knowledge, Skill, and Attitude) and may be he will make up his mind that he is not suitable for particular job, so he should try his hand on something else.

Second sort of strategy or behavior is destructive in nature. Depending upon the personality traits, attachment to the goal and extraneous factors, an individual indulges in following four kinds of behaviours viz.

Aggression: Physical and verbal attack, sabotage, resentment, rage and anger etc.

Withdrawal: Non-involvement in the job e.g. avoiding work, passing the buck on others, not taking responsibility, coming late and leaving early and finally resignation.

Fixation: Fixation is repeating the same old behavior which is not going to bring any productive and positive results.

Regression: Regression contains indulging in childish behavior like crying, sulking etc.

8. Types of motivation

Figure 2:  Types of Motivation

Intrinsic motivation:

It is the motivation which comes from the self of an individual through your own thoughts, your beliefs in your own abilities, intensity of your need and your attitude towards goal achievement. Some people are self motivated/ self geared that don’t require any push or accelerator from outside. Intrinsic motivation is more desirable and has long lasting effect.

Extrinsic Motivation:

Some people lack self motivation or lacks initiation they are in constant need of somebody from outside to push them to do something. In extrinsic motivation we can talk about carrot and stick approach of motivation. Which means how somebody from outside can motivate you either through positive reinforcement or through negative reinforcement. Shiv Khera in his bestseller book “You can Win” has quoted an example of a donkey as in the moment the owner of the donkey will offer carrots to the donkey it will keep on working/moving. Similarly in negative reinforcement a stick instead of carrot can be used unless the owner beat the donkey with stick it will keep him moving and the moment he stopped the stick, donkey will again stop working.

So, we can evaluate the difference between extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. In today’s fierce competition era, nobody has time to push other person. One has to be self motivated on one needs to be intrinsically motivated. In an organization if you are not performing you will be fired from the job.

Lucky are the students or employees who have their teachers, parents, siblings or bosses who motivate them otherwise motivational talks and motivational speeches have price tagged with them. In business world motivational speakers charge huge money to motivate you. Anyhow this is profession now because this is need of the hour as every body is in mad race of minting money and cannot spare time to their employees and in personal lives to their kids etc.

Therefore, instead of relying on somebody else one should read good books, should talk to good and successful people and follow their foot prints, observe their positive behaviors and try to adapt those things in their own life and should have a firm belief on one’s abilities, skills, and law of nature that hard work never goes waste, it will always fetch rich dividends sooner or later. Besides it, positive auto signal is a very powerful technique to stay motivated. Positive auto signals means doing positive self talk e.g.

• I can do this.
• I am very intelligent
• I will definitely achieve my goal I am responsible
• I am loving and caring
• Everybody loves and accepts me Everybody appreciates me

That means no negative statements and not even positive statements in negative forms e.g. I am Intelligent (Correct for self talk) I am not dull (Incorrect for self talk)

Psychologists are of the view that with this positive self talks your mind start accepting those positive aspects and start behaving in that way only. To prove this concept, many years back in USA an experiment was carried out where the whole class was divided into two groups of students with LOW IQ level students and another with high IQ level students. Students with High IQ level were being told that they have low IQ and vice versa and this thing was constantly reinforced to those group of students. To the amazement of all, at the end of year their results got reversed.

Low IQ students who were being labeled as High IQ students actually outperformed High IQ students who were being labeled as Low IQ students. This is the impact of positive talks and reinforcement

9. Techniques of motivation

• Praise
• Recognition Appreciation Job rotation
• Job enrichment
• Money (Salary /Fringe benefits) Positive Self talks
• Approval
• Challenging task Power
• Flexible hours Work at home Incentive system

10. Summary

Motivation is sin quo non for all the tasks, jobs, productivity and success of individuals as well as organizations. Motivation is the most widely studied topic in applied psychology. Motivation is the beginning of all success stories. Motivation is a belief (positive), inner feeling, drive, spark, volition to take a particular course of action or to achieve a specific goal. Different authors have defined motivation in different manners and have emphasized on the words like need/motive, tension, drives, persistence, direction, intensity. Motivation is consequential in converting our imagination into reality. Importance of motivation and how it emerges has been described in the module. Motivation is of two types; extrinsic and intrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is most desirable and long lasting and comes from the volition of an individual what he really wants to do and extrinsic motivation is triggered by external reinforcement, it can be positive as well as negative. Negative motivation has bad effects in the long run while positive motivation has good effects although not as good as intrinsic motivation. Highly motivated employee are committed, allegiant, productive, shows citizenship behaviour, satisfied, more focused, don’t indulge in destructive behaviour and motivate others too and hence create positive ambiance in the organization and shun politics, conflicts, aggression and other negative outcomes in the organization. There are various techniques of motivating the individuals in an organizational set up and in other context too. No doubt, money is the great motivator but it is not the sole motivator. Even praise, recognition, acceptance, approval which are priceless and inexpensive can do wonders in motivating the employee. Motivated workforce is the dream of any organization and no magic wand can do this. Managers must need to learn the skills of motivating others.

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