15 Minority Rights in Central Asia

Dr. Muneer Alam

Table of Contents

1. Learning Outcome

2. Introduction

3. International Instruments on Minorities Rights

4. Minorities in Central Asia

4.1. Minorities in Kazakhstan

4.2. Minorities in Turkmenistan

4.3. Minorities in Uzbekistan

4.4. Minorities in Tajikistan

4.5. Minorities in Kyrgyzstan

5. Conclusion

1. Learning Outcomes

The purpose of this chapter is:

• To give the students an overview of minorities right under International norms and minorities right in Central Asia.
• To help the students to understand the manner in which the minorities rights are violated in Central Asia in spite the existence of international instruments for the protection of minorities rights.

2. Introduction

Minorities are disadvantaged ethnic, national, religious, linguistic or cultural groups who are smaller in number than the rest of the population and who may wish to maintain and develop their identity. There are no common agreements in definition of minority; scholars recognize some characteristics in this regard as below:

1. There number should be less in terms of population
2. They are not in dominant position in the government

To be different in terms of race, culture, language and religion, it means that minorities are those groups which are different than others in terms of race, language and religion, but they are the citizen of a country and a part of population but the only difference is their race, language and religion. The position and standard of minorities is differing from country to country. In some countries, minorities enjoy rights while in some countries minorities are deprived from their basic rights. The issue of minorities is a global issue. In all the developing countries the issue of minorities is a sensitive question.

Central Asia is ethnically diverse region. Throughout the history, it has been a place of encounter between peoples of different races and cultures. It has experienced mass population movements. Some of these started beyond the borders of the region and moved inwards; others spread outwards from Central Asia into neighbouring territories; others again were intra-regional. Major invasions of the ancient and medieval periods included those of the Arabs, Greeks, Mongols and White Huns has led the minorities in troubles. Archaeological evidence, as well as the physical anthropology of the modern peoples of Central Asia indicates that there was a high degree of intermixing between the various groups. There was also a strong tendency towards cultural adaptation and assimilation and integration. Yet there was also great regional diversity. By the sixteenth century groupings were emerging that were ultimately to coalesce into the modern ‘nations’ of Central Asia (e.g. Kazaks, Turkmen and Uzbeks). There were also small communities who, because of their religion, class or profession, retained a distinctive identity. These included the Central Asian Arabs, the Bukharin Jews, and the Central Asian Gypsies. The state formations (khanates) of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were dominated by particular tribal groupings. However, their subjects included representatives of many different origins and thus, from a modern perspective, they were multi-ethnic. There was frequent fighting between these states, but within the unit, ethnic relations were relatively harmonious. A contributory factor here was the tradition of ethnic segmentation in trades and living areas. This helped to minimize inter-group competition within the state.

3. International Instruments on Minorities Rights

The United Nations’ treaty-based human rights system includes legal procedures through which members of minorities can seek protection of their rights. There are six major, legally binding international human rights treaties within the UN human rights system that deal with a broad range of human rights. Each of these treaties has a committee that monitors the way in which States parties are fulfilling their human rights obligations under the respective treaty. Article 27 of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights reveals that, “In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion, or to use their own language”. In particular, the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the 1992 Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (hereinafter: United Nations Minorities Declaration) recognize and protect the rights of persons belonging to minorities. In practice, however, these rights are far from being realized.

4. Minorities in Central Asia

Central Asia is ethnically diverse region. In Central Asia, there are many different social groups that, by virtue of their history, culture, economic status, geographic location, gender, race or other such distinguishing features, could be defined as ‘minorities’ in relation to a dominant ‘majority’. In all the states, there are two groups- majority and minority. After October Revolution in Russia in 1917, the National Delimitation Commission of Central Asia, carried out in 1924–25, resulted in the creation of the five territorial administrative units. These new formations were multi-ethnic. However, the ethnic diversity was greatly increased in the following decades. During the period 1925–40 hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mostly from the western (Slav) republics, moved into the Central Asian republics. They included party activists, administrators, military, security and law enforcement personnel, professionals and skilled technicians; also political exiles and disinherited kulaks (the wealthier members of society, especially prosperous peasants).

In the 1980s Russians and other immigrants started to leave Central Asia. It is due to deteriorating economic and environmental conditions of Central Asia. By 1989, the Slav communities had slightly decreased in absolute numbers in Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, although they continued to increase in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. The punished peoples rehabilitated to their original homelands from the 1960s onwards after Stalin’s death. 1980s, the movement accelerated. Meanwhile, the rate of demographic increase among the Central Asians remained high and their numbers, as well as their percentage share in the total population, rose steadily. By 1991 the titular peoples in Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan represented a substantial numerical majority; in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan they constituted well over half the population, while in Kazakhstan they had become the largest of the minority groups.

A common prediction about Central Asia was that after independence the region would rapidly fall into ethnic-based violence that could potentially tear it apart. Central Asians have experienced tremendous changes since 1991. There is considerable variation among the conditions experienced in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. As newly independent countries, each experiences unique problems and responds to them in its own ways.

The situation of post – independent Central Asia’s minority communities is surrounded within this context of transformation. Each country of Central Asia is multi-ethnic and multicultural. The Struggle for power among various regional clans resulted in an ongoing war in Tajikistan. Violent, inter-ethnic riots broke out in several other areas in 1989–90. Current ethnic conflicts in Central Asia is revolving around the competition for land and other scarce resources like hydrocarbon and minerals often among Central Asian national minorities and sections of the titular population. Many members of groups that arrived in the region during the Soviet period have returned to their historic homelands, either ‘pulled’ by the lure of prosperity or ‘pushed’ by the fear that they would no longer be welcome in Central Asia. These fears have partly arisen due to recent nation building efforts in many Central Asian states. Most Central Asian states have remained relatively stable.

Western governmental and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have, at times, displayed a cultural insensitivity that has alienated their Central Asian partners. A lack of awareness about the region and current conditions has sometimes meant that policies and practices have been based on erroneous assumptions that have led to damaging consequences. It is hoped that governments will recognize an inclusive policy towards minorities and create genuine equality of opportunity for all, will encourage individuals and groups to contribute to their country and support and defend its values. It also appears likely that the greatest risk to non-dominant groups would arise if conditions deteriorated in Central Asia, generating resentment and the potential for extremism. Measures are needed to prevent a deepening economic crisis that is socially and politically destabilizing. The economic hardship experienced in many Central Asian countries has made it tempting for some governments to accept loans and other conditional aid packages to help and bolster economic development. Yet this too may pose other long-term risks, such as the potential for Central Asian economies to be restructured in a way that exacerbates inequalities and conflict. Minority Rights Group aims to promote minority rights and cooperation between communities.

In all the states efforts are being made to promote good race relations, both by providing legal safeguards for the rights of minorities and by publicly encouraging mutual respect and cooperation. Incitement to ethnic strife, or harassment on racial grounds, is a criminal offence. The respective post- Soviet constitutions of all states guarantee equal rights before the law in education and in employment for all members of society. Freedom of conscience, along with other basic freedoms, is also enshrined in these constitutions. Full citizenship is open to permanent residents of the new states regardless of ethnic origin, religion or language.

Some measures are being introduced to establish mechanisms for inter-ethnic cooperation and for the monitoring of minority rights. Notable developments are the creation of the Assembly of Peoples of Kazakhstan and the Assembly of Peoples of Kyrgyzstan. In most cases the provision of cultural facilities for the minorities has remained at the same level as that of the Soviet period, or has been enhanced. There has been a proliferation of ‘national’ cultural centres since independence; they sometimes function as semi-formal representative bodies. They require official registration; this is usually granted, except when the authorities wish to curb the activities of a particular group.

The Russians, the largest of the minorities, experienced the strongest sense of dislocation and loss of security. Many felt the need for additional guarantees of their safety in the form of the right to hold dual citizenship. Turkmenistan agreed to this without hesitation in December 1993, securing in return reciprocal rights. The Tajik government also eventually accepted the principle of dual citizenship and passed a bill to this effect in September 1995. In Kyrgyzstan, although the government and some senior officials were in favour of the measure, nationalist opposition was so powerful as to prevent it being accepted by parliament. In Kazakhstan, emigration and travel procedures were simplified, but the right to hold dual citizenship was rejected. The Uzbek government also refused to sanction this provision. In passports and other official documents, the reference to a person’s ethnic origin (‘nationality’ as opposed to ‘citizenship’) had, by 1996, been partially abolished in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.

4.1. Minorities in Kazakhstan

The ethnic composition in Kazakhstan includes 44.3 per cent Kazak, 35.8 per cent Russian, 5.1 per cent Ukrainian, 3.6 per cent German, 2.2 per cent Uzbek, 2 per cent Tatar, and 1.1 per cent Uighur. The Kazaks are descended from Turkic and Mongol tribes. In the fifteenth century some of these tribes formed the Kazak khanate. In the 1989 Soviet census of Kazakhstan, 100 ethnic groups were listed separately. Almost 20 of these were represented by fewer than 100 individuals. Just fewer than 30 groups came within the 100–10,000 range. A further 20 plus groups ranged in size from 10,000– 100,000; among these were Greeks (46,746), Dungans (Chinese Muslims – 30,165), Kurds (25,425) and Bulgarians (10,426). The range 100,000 – 1 million included Germans (957,518), Ukrainians (896,240), Tartars (327,982) and Koreans (103,315). The two largest groups by far were the Kazaks and the Russians, each numbering over 6 million.

German immigration into Kazakhstan began during the late Tsarist period. By 1926, they numbered over 51,000. By 1993, it numbered just under 700,000; in 1994 it was estimated at 614,000. The population has continued to fall since then; it has probably reduced by approximately half during the period 1992–96. The Korean community is also having presence in Kazakhstan. By 1959, the Korean community in Kazakhstan numbered some 74,000, and 138,400 in Uzbekistan.

The Uighurs are a Turkic people. The majority (an estimated 10 million) live in the north-west of China, in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Province. By tradition, they are traders and agriculturalists. During the nineteenth century, as the Russian Empire expanded eastwards, a portion of the Uighur population came under Tsarist rule. Most were located in the Ferghana Valley in modern Uzbekistan, and rest settled in the Ili Valley in modern Kazakhstan. In 1926, there were 10,500 Uighurs in Kazakhstan. In the 1989 census it was recorded that they numbered 185,300, but some Uighurs claimed that this was an under-estimate.

There has always been a substantial Uzbek community in Kazakhstan. Today they number is approximately 300,000. They live in compact groups in the south, where they are mostly engaged in trade and agriculture. Complaints are sometimes voiced in private about the difficulty of getting textbooks and other publications in their own language. Kazakstan has a wide range of registered religious organizations. However, Islam is the largest faith. In addition to the Kazaks, there are approximately 750,000 other adherents of Sunni Islam in the republic (e.g. Tatars, Uighurs and Uzbeks). Christianity is the second largest faith. The Russian population are by tradition Orthodox Christians. The Belarusians and Ukrainians, in their respective homelands, are divided between the Orthodox and Unite (Roman Catholicism of the eastern rite) faiths.

The current constitution prohibits the formation of associations or political parties that have ethnic, religious or nationalist identities. Some minorities are also specifically targeted in the fight against ‘terrorism’ and ‘separatism’. A 1995 cooperation agreement with China included a clause about fighting separatism. Since then, some Uighur activists have been extradited to China and executed there. Some Uighur minority groups have claimed they face bureaucratic obstacles in their dealings with state authorities because of the stereotype understanding of Uighur activists as ‘separatists’. Religious minorities have been generally free to operate, and are not subject to any state-sanctioned harassment, though there are occasional problems reported with some local authorities. However, in July 2005, President Nursultan Nazarbaev signed amendments entitled ‘On additions and amendments to laws of the Republic of Kazakhstan relating to national security’ which may substantially restrict freedom of religion in the country, especially for non-traditional religious minorities, making it compulsory to register all religious communities and banning the activities of all religious organizations that have not been registered. Some reports suggest that the new legislation could be used to ban all unregistered religious activity, affecting particular religious minorities such as Baptists, other Protestants, Ahmadiya Muslims, and Hare Krishna devotees.

Despite President Nazarbayev regularly making public statements highlighting and praising the country’s tradition of inter-ethnic and interfaith tolerance, Kazakhstan legislation renders it compulsory for all religious communities to register and the activities of unregistered religious organizations are banned. In June 2007, 12 homes of Hare Krishna community were forcibly demolished near Almaty. A state crackdown on Baptist and Pentecostal Christians was also carried by police as ‘the fight against terrorism and religious groups without registration’.

In April 2007 Kazakhstan’s religious minorities expressed deep concern about a Justice Ministry booklet entitled How Not to Fall Under the Influence of Religious Sects. The Kazakhstan International Bureau of Human Rights and the Rule of Law said that the booklet provides ‘the moral, or more accurately immoral, basis for officials to justify their negative attitudes towards non-traditional religions’. Moreover, the booklet also subscribes that ‘transferring to other religious faiths represents treason to one’s country and faith’.

4.2. Minorities in Turkmenistan

In Turkmenistan, ethnic groups comprises of: Turkmens 85 per cent, Uzbeks 5 per cent, Russians 4 per cent and other 6 per cent. Uzbeks, Russians and other ethnic groups constitute a small amount of minority. Russians and Ukrainians live in or near the capital, Ashgabat, and other in other urban centres. While Russians and Ukrainians constituted the largest minority group at the time of independence, their numbers have decreased dramatically in two separate waves: first, immediately after independence, and then in 2003 when Russians lost their dual citizenship rights. The situation of Russian and Ukrainian minorities has deteriorated in the last few years for the previously relative advantages that they enjoyed.

Moreover, there continues to be no specific organization allowed in Turkmenistan to promote Russian concerns, which appear to involve demands for the right to participate in public life and the decision-making process, and to use the Russian language in dealings with the government, to increase the number and access to schools teaching in Russian. The Turkmenistan campaign has reached far-reaching levels in the last few years that have resulted in the now near exclusion of the Russian-speaking minority from virtually all state employment. This has been done through a number of techniques, such as not recognising Russian university degrees for professional employment and the prohibition on employment within the government institutions for those who still hold Russian citizenship. Though privileged in the past, the Russian Orthodox Church is also being increasingly subjected to the control of government authorities: Russian Orthodox are prohibited from bringing religious literature into Turkmenistan and Russian priests are consistently not allowed to enter and serve in the country

4.3. Minorities in Uzbekistan

In Uzbekistan, minority groups include Russians 6 per cent, Tajiks 4.8 per cent, Kazakhs 4 per cent, Tatars 1.6% per cent; other minorities include Karakalpaks, Koreans, Meskhetian Turks and Jews. In 2013 the ethnic composition is Uzbek 80 per cent, Russian 5.5 per cent, Tajik 5 per cent, Kazakh 3 per cent, Karakalpak 2.5 per cent, Tatar 1.5 per cent and other 2.5 per cent.

Uzbekistan has witnessed an authoritarian regime with one of the world’s worst human rights record. While there are in theory a series of provisions in the constitution and other types of legislation guaranteeing a series of human rights, the practice has been generally repressive towards opposition figures, the independent media and non-governmental organisations. This has increased dramatically after the 2005 massacre in Andijan. The Committee to Protect Journalists considers Uzbekistan as a leading jailer of journalists, using the war against terror as an excuse to crackdown on independent media; it has added the country as one of the ‘10 Most Censored Countries’ in the world in 2006 because of strict government control and harassment and intimidation.

Minorities have left Uzbekistan in very large numbers, partly as a consequence of the repressive regime of President Islam Karimov, but also because of the limited opportunities for minorities often linked to discriminatory practices by authorities in favour of the Uzbek majority. By some estimates, almost a million of the Russian-speaking minority had left the country. The largest single minority, the Tajiks, probably comprise close to 8 per cent of the population, but they remain largely excluded in many areas of public life, with the regime of President Karimov seen as targeting Tajiks.

Thousands of individuals are detained for political or religious reasons, including human rights activists. The position of minorities in the country is thus similar to that of others who experience the difficulties of living in a repressive regime. The Russian language is still widely used by state authorities in daily activities, however, despite the Uzbek language being the only official language. The fight against terror and religious extremism in Uzbekistan has severely impacted on the Tajik minority, with the forcible resettlement in 2000 of thousands of mostly ethnic Tajik families from southern mountain villages in the Sariasinsky district to locations further inland such as the Sherobad district, burning and bombing of mainly Tajik villages, and the destruction of their homes and fields because of allegations that Islamic militants had infiltrated these villages. The status of other minorities and the use of their languages are significantly less. In the case of Tajiks, almost non-existent outside of some localities – and in particular the important Tajik cultural centres of Bukhara and Samarkand – despite their being present in greater numbers than Russians.

4.4. Minorities in Tajikistan

According to National Census, 2011, minority groups in Tajikistan include; Uzbeks 15.3 per cent, Russians 1.1 per cent, and Kyrgyz 1.1 per cent. The Tajiks are an Iranian people who speak a variety of Persian and Indo-Aryan languages. Most of them are Sunni Muslims and they make up about 80 percent of the population of Tajikistan. The state is home to over eighty ethnic groups, most notably Uzbeks, Russians, Tatars, Kyrgyz and Ukrainians. Pamiri Tajiks arguably also constitute a minority group. A small minority in the southern province of Kurgan Tyube consider themselves Arab by descent, although they speak Tajik. Main languages spoken in Tajikistan are: Tajik, Russian, Uzbek, Yagnobi and Pamiri languages. Main religions include: Islam (Sunni, Ismai’li), Orthodox Christianity.

The civil war, which erupted in summer and autumn 1992, claimed up to 100,000 dead and a million refugees. The civil war saw mobilization of supporters along regional, ethnic and clan lines in the struggle to resolve the ideological conflict between Islam and secularism and the political question of who would rule the country. After Civil War, despite the absence of comprehensive human rights legislation, the international treaties dealing with human rights ratified by Tajikistan can be applied directly by the country’s tribunals, but are seldom invoked partially because of the weakness and poor status of judicial institutions, as well as a low level of awareness of the availability of these rights. Freedom of expression is protected under the country’s legal system, but independent media and journalists while present in Tajikistan, are subjected to pressure and harassment, and may have problems with obtaining or keeping licences. Some journalists who offend authorities have either disappeared or arrested.

An additional difficulty faced by the larger minorities is the requirement from 2000 that all minority schools follow the approved national curriculum and use educational materials. While previously these schools could use materials in their language from Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, etc., this option was officially removed while approved materials from central educational authorities in the minority languages were either non-existent or unavailable.

The situation of religious minorities is relatively better in Tajikistan than in some of its neighbours. While religious groups must register, there are no reports of denial of registration of religious minorities, and Tajikistan permits the formation of political parties of a religious character, something no other country in the region permits. The law, entitled “On Freedom of Conscience, on Religious Associations and Other [Religious] Organizations”, would replace the current law on religion and add restrictions. In June 2007 representatives of 22 minority religious groups signed an open  letter to the President and Parliament expressing concern that the draft law would effectively outlaw minority religious groups in the country. The fight against Islamic fundamentalism has led the government to ban one group, Hizb ut-Tahrir, though most outside observers describe it as a non-violent organization. Most of its activists who have been imprisoned since 2000 are members of the Uzbek minority.

Moreover, there were reports in 2007 that the government had begun a ‘transmigration’ programme to bring Tajiks into strategic areas traditionally inhabited by members of the Uzbek minority. Tajik authorities started resettling some 1,000 Tajik families in November 2006 to a western region mainly populated by Uzbeks. Observers and members of the Uzbek minority claim that central authorities are trying to dilute the Uzbek percentage in a key industrial area. This raises issues of discrimination in relation to land rights and usage.

4.5. Minorities in Kyrgyzstan

Kyrgyzstan’s Ethnic composition include: 52.4 per cent Kyrgyz, 21.5 per cent Russian, 12.9 per cent Uzbek (1989). In 2005, Minority groups include Uzbeks (14.2 per cent), Russians (10.3per cent), Dungans (1.1 per cent), Uighurs (1 per cent), as well as groups of Tatars, Kazakhs, Ukrainians, Germans, Tajiks, Koreans, Jews, and North Caucasians. Ethnic Kyrgyzs now make up almost 70 percent of the population. Slavs mainly Russians but also some Ukrainians – were until recently the largest minority in Kyrgyzstan. According to census 2014, Kyrgyz are 72.6 per cent, Uzbek, 14.4 percent, Rusians are 6.4, Tajik, 0.8 percent and others 4.39 percent. Unlike in other Central Asian states, a significant proportion of Slavs are rural dwellers. Their numbers have, however, decreased rather dramatically in the last 10 years: some estimates now put their size at less than 9 per cent, with Uzbeks, who represent perhaps as much as 15 per cent of the current population, constituting the country’s largest minority. They are concentrated mainly in the Fergana valley in the west of the country.

Main religions in Kyrgyzstan include: Sunni Islam, Orthodox Christianity. Official policies in Kyrgyzstan have often been described as more ‘minority friendly’ than some of its neighbours. By granting the Russian language a special status as a ‘link language’ under the Constitution, authorities seemed to have demonstrated their desire to be inclusive and encourage Russians and other Slavs to remain in the country. Problematically, the treatment of the Uzbek minority seems somewhat unbalanced when compared to the Russian minority, in that whilst both groups are close to the same size, only Russian has any sort of official status, which benefits Russian-speakers in terms of access to employment and education. There is no status whatsoever in relation to the Uzbek language despite the large number of speakers.

The Uzbek minority based in the southern parts of the country, in particular may experience this as a way of assuring the dominance of the Kyrgyz majority. The former’s almost complete exclusion from administrative and political positions, despite now constituting the largest minority in the country, may be contributing to the strength of fundamentalist religious beliefs (often officially described as Wahhabi interpretations) among some Uzbeks, and to resulting government crackdowns and suspicion against members of this minority. In the short term, the effects at least for the Uzbek minority are not positive, with calls for the addition of Uzbek as an official language and demonstrations in support of this have been met by violence and even murders of proponents in Osh and southern provinces. Demonstrations calling for an official status for the language and for some kind of proportional representation of Uzbeks in state administration in the southern provinces occurred in 2006, and property owned by prominent Uzbek was seized in 2007.

In January 2009, a highly restrictive new law on religion came into force, amid protests from human rights defenders and international bodies. A legal challenge to the law was dismissed in the Constitutional Court in July 2009. The law particularly affected smaller religious communities in the country such as Protestants, Baha’is and Hare Krishnas, who were largely denied the right to re-register their religion with the State Committee for Religious Affairs, one of the principle requirements of the new laws for all religions. The 2009 law also banned the sharing of one’s faith, required state examination of all imported religious materials, and banned all distribution of religious literature and other materials in public places. As of early 2011, it was unclear whether the new coalition government had any plans to rescind this legislation.

In June 2010, violence erupted between ethnic Kyrgyz and Uzbeks, resulting in up to 2000 fatalities and displacing thousands of Uzbeks. Other ethnic groups were also affected by the June instability. A number of ethnic Tajiks from Batken province reportedly fled along with Uzbeks to Uzbekistan. There were also reports in June that many ethnic Uighurs fled to Kazakhstan from northern Kyrgyzstan after receiving threats that they would be the next target of violence. It is also important to mention that in the early 90s, Kyrgyz language was actively promoted as a vehicle of national identity; however, Russian remained the main language of the administration. Currently ethnic Russians feel they are beleaguered not by racism but by the petty obstructions connected with the fact that they are not ethnic Kyrgyzs. According to the Head of the Slavic Diaspora Association in the southern region of Jalalabad, Valery Uleyev, Russians encounter inequalities and humiliations on a daily basis. It is known as velvet discrimination. Some of them look back to the Soviet period when Russians formed the Soviet Union’s majority and ethnic tensions were firmly suppressed

5. Conclusion

The status and political activities of minorities in Central Asia is differing from country to country. Minorities in Central Asia are presently not well stabled as the government policies are not constructive. Though constitutionally, all the republics talks about equal rights and liberties, but practically all the activities are state controlled. Even the religious freedom is not enjoyed by all ethnic minority groups. Registration is compulsory for any political or religious organization. Minorities in Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan are in better position as compare to Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. In Uzbekistan, minorities have been displaced due to Islam Karimov’s oppressive policies.

Civil war in Tajikistan left minorities in back foot. Central Asian states need to revive the inclusive policy for the betterment of minority status and their rights.

Reference

1. Francesco Capotorti, Study on the Rights of Persons Belonging to Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, New York, United Nations, 1991
2. Javaid Rehman, The Weaknesses in the International Protection of Minority Rights, Hague, Kluwer Law International, 2000.
3. Philip Vuciri Ramaga, “Relativity of the Minority Concept”, Human Rights Quarterly, vol.14, no.3, 1992.
4. Javaid Rehman, The Weaknesses in the International Protection of Minority Rights, Hague, Kluwer Law International, 2000.
5. Rhona K. M. Smith, “The Fate of Minorities – Sixty Years On”, Web Journal of Current Legal Issues, vol.1, 2009, available at: http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/2009/issue1/smith1a.html (last accessed on May 21, 2009).