11 Domestic use of water-general trends and issues of water supply in urban and rural areas.

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Introduction

 

This module is designed to help the student to gain the knowledge about the concept of domestic water consumption and related issues .Module begins with a brief introduction to what is Domestic Water Consumption, with a focus on the issues facing by urban and rural dwellers about the domestic water supply when they face the problem of competitive use of limited resource. The remaining module grouped into three parts i.e. First part cover the discussion about the different types of domestic requirements of water .This part also analyses the difference between developed/developing andurban/rural requirements pattern. Part II deals with the different system of domestic water supply and in rural and urban areas of Developed and Developing Countries.Part III, focuses on the pattern of domestic water consumption in India.This includes the availability and supply of water for domestic water consumption. This part also explains planning process and programme implementation for effective domestic water supply and difference between rural and urban water consumption pattern. Part VI, Summing Up discussesissues, challenges and strategiesfor the economic domestic water consumption.

 

By the end of this module, students should be able :

 

To understand the different segments of domestic water use and their relative value, defining the water requirement for a household

 

To describe and analyse the wide range of factors which decide the requirement of water in different areas and regions.

 

To know the difference between domestic water consumption pattern in developed, developing, urban and rural areas. Different sources of water and mechanism of supply.

 

To understand the Importance of planning so that the economic use of limited resources should become possible.

 

To indicate the ways by using those individual practitioners can conserve the water at household level.

 

I. Defining Domestic Use of Water

 

Water is one of the important requirements of human being. Without water life cannot be sustained more than few days. Just as the specific needs domestic water consumption is increasingly attracting attention of the planners. In contrast of industrial and Agricultural categories individual domestic user seldom make the large demand on total water supply but collectively this is an important source of revenue. Average residential water use in single-dwelling units varied from one place to another from rural to urban from one country to another from one group to other. It has been observed that in addition to the water used to supply the necessities of life, the amount of domestic water use varied with habit, social requirements, general installation of meters, number and kind of water using fixtures  and  equipment’s.  Domestic  water  use  is  water  used  for  indoor  and  outdoor  household purposes— all the things a person do at home: drinking, preparing food, bathing, washing clothes and dishes, brushing your teeth, watering the yard and garden, and even washing the dog.

 

World Health Organization defines domestic water as being ‘water used for all usual domestic purposes including consumption, bathing and food preparation’ (WHO, 1993; 2002). Although this broad definition provides an overall framework for domestic water usage in the context of quality requirements, it is less useful when considering quantities required for domestic supply. Sub-dividing uses of domestic water is useful in understanding minimum quantities of domestic water required and to inform management options. In the ‘Drawers of Water’ study on water use patterns in East Africa, White et al. (1972) suggested that three types of use could be defined in relation to normal domestic supply:

 

•  Consumption (drinking and cooking)

 

•  Hygiene (including basic needs for personal and domestic cleanliness)

 

•  Amenity use (for instance car washing, lawn watering).

 

In updating the Drawers of Water study, Thompson et al. (2001) suggest a fourth category can be included of ‘productive use’ which was of particular relevance to poor households in developing countries. Productive use of water includes uses such as brewing, animal watering, construction and small-scale horticulture.(WHO : 2003)

 

BOX I. Breakdown of residential water use.

Clothes Washer 22%
Shower 16%
Faucet 17%
Bath 2%
Toilet 26%
Leak 14%
Dishwasher 1%
Other domestic use 2%

 

The data shows that at least half of the water that we use is unnecessary. This includes leaks, plumbing problems, the over-watering of lawns and washing cars. In the summertime, municipal water use peaks, because between half and three quarters of all municipally treated water is used for watering lawns. The unnecessarily high consumption rates result in higher costs of water treatment, because the water that is being used for washing cars and watering lawns has been treated to drinking water quality guidelines. The water treatment costs can be in the form of water treatment devices, such as filters and chemicals, or energy, which is required to treat the water. There are now devices to separate black water (which is typically sewage) from grey water (which is typically water from dishwashers and showers), as the grey water can undergo minimal treatment and then be used for watering lawns and other purposes that do not require treated drinking water.

 

Residential Water Consumption;

http://www.epa.gov/OW-OWM.html/water-efficiency/docs/indoor508.pdf

 

  II. Requirement of Water (Develop / Developing Countries-Urban/ Rural)

 

All around the world the water consumption per inhabitant is very , for instance an American needs in average 500 liters a day, a western European 150 liters and a African only 50 liters a day. Even if these differences tend to decrease with the time no one is equal in the water uses. Another difference is a consequence of the people’s way of life, indeed in the countryside people uses less water than in the city. Weather conditions, type of activities and age of people also affect the requirement. Requirement of water quantity very with the Specific population groups for example young , children, pregnant or lactating women, the elderly, the terminally ill and athletes have different requirement, generally young and old persons use less water than the average.

 

Requirement of water for consumption (drinking and cooking)

 

Water is a basic nutrient of the human body and it is crucial for human life. The digestion of food, adsorption, transportation and use of nutrients and the elimination of toxins and wastes from the body depends on it (Kleiner, 1999). After water Food is another important aspect of human life and the preparation of foods also depend on the water supply . In their review, White et al. (1972) suggested that 2.6 litres of water per day is lost through respiratory loss, insensible perspiration, urination and defecation. In addition, a significant quantity of water is lost through sensible perspiration if hard work is performed. These figures led them to suggest that a daily minimum of water required in tropical climates would be around 3 litres per person, although the volume of water loss suggests that this should be at the upper end of this scale. They note, however, that under extreme conditions of hard work at high temperatures in the sun this figure could rise to as much as 25 litres per day. However, they also point out that the proportion of the fluid intake achieved via food would be expected to vary significantly and could provide 100% of the fluid requirement in some rare cases, notably pastoralists where milk was the primary food. In the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Guideline Values for chemical contaminants are based on the assumption of a 60 kg adult consuming 2 litres per day from drinking water, which would be equivalent to 3 litres per capita per day including food consumption (if the ratio cited by Kleiner were applied). Where specific guidance is needed for vulnerable populations, a figure of 1 litre per day for a 10kg child or 0.75 litre per day for a 5kg child are used (WHO, 1993; p31). The WHO-UNEP-ILO International Programme on Chemical Safety use reference values for volume of fluid intake in deriving its guidance, using reference body weights of 70kg for adult males, 58kg for adult females and an average of 64kg. The reference fluid intake values for these different reference body weights under different climatic and activity conditions are shown in table 1 below.

 

Table 1: Daily fluid intake reference values in litres per capita (IPCS, 1994)

 

   BOX 2. What is water consumption?

 

There are two ways in which we can classify our water use. One type is in-stream use; this includes hydroelectric power, boating and swimming, for example. While in-stream activities do not use up the water, they can degrade the water quality through pollution. The other type of water use is the withdrawal of water, and this classification includes household use, industry use, irrigation, livestock watering and thermal and nuclear power. Most withdrawals are consumptions, meaning that the activity uses the water and does not return it to the source.

 

The amount of water that is taken (or withdrawn) from the source is called the water intake, and the amount that is returned is called the water discharge. The difference between the water intake and the water discharge is the amount consumed.

 

Water intake – Water discharge = Consumption

 

The total amount of water that is used is called the gross water use. The difference between the gross water use and the water intake is equal to the amount of water that is recirculated. The recirculated amount is expressed as a recycling rate and is a good indicator of water efficiency. Gross water use – Water intake = Amount recirculated (or recycling rate)

 

www.safewater.org

 

Water requirement for hygiene (including basic needs for personal and domestic cleanliness)

 

An additional volume of water is required for maintaining food and personal hygiene through hand and food washing, bathing and laundry. Poor hygiene may in part be caused by a lack of sufficient quantity of domestic water supply. This has direct link with human health. The numerous diseases linked to poor hygiene include diarrhoeal and other diseases transmitted through the faecal-oral route; skin and eye diseases, in particular trachoma and diseases related to infestations, for instance louse and tick-borne typhus (Bradley, 1977; Cairncross and Feachem, 1993).

 

The evidence from the different studies done at different point of time consistently points to use of water as being important to controlling disease and the fact that lack of access to water may impede its use and thereby adversely affect health. The evidence also indicates that the quantity and quality of water along with hygiene behaviour decide the health status of a population . It is also found that the benefit from increased quantity of water would only be felt in relation to the gross differences of service level and that hygiene behaviour is more important within populations using communal water sources.

 

The WHO ,2003 report suggest that there is a strong link between water access and hygiene. Water quantities used by households are primarily dependent on access as determined by distance and/or time for collection. These differences are primarily seen as functioning at four levels, broadly equivalent to service level, shown in table below. The estimated quantities of water at each level may reduce where water supplies are intermittent and the risks of ingress of contaminated water into domestic water supplies will increase.(WHO:2003) Report also suggest that people who spent less time and reasonable cost for fulfilling their basic water requirement are able to get more time to maintain the basic level of hygiene .

 

Table 2

 

Summary of requirement for water service level to promote health

 

   Water requirement for amenity use (for instance car washing, lawn watering)

 

Amenity uses of water are not directly related to health aspects . Amenity uses include lawn-watering and car washing. Purely amenity uses of water is beneficial in terms of quality of life. However amenity use of water should be limited because some time this place a significant demand in a particular area and a large population of that area compromised their basic needs.

 

This is often seen in developed countries but now developing countries are also facing the similar problem, particularly in urban areas where the high income group consume a large amount of water as amenity use and low income group compromise for their basic needs. Therefore controlling amenity use of domestic water supplies should be driven to ensure that basic needs are met throughout the population in an equitable manner. In developed as a solution for this increasing efforts are being made to educate users on the problems of use of water for such purposes and in some cases restrictions applied and enforced to conserve water resources. Such approaches may include the use of variable tariff rates

 

Household productive uses of domestic water

 

The productive uses of domestic water at a household level, includes brewing, small-scale food production and household construction in low-income areas. However, as noted in the introduction, in terms of overall use of water sources the economic use of water typically greatly exceeds that used for domestic supply, but may compromise the ability of the resource to meet basic needs (either through over-consumption or through uses leading to quality deterioration). The health sector oversight of water supply, has traditionally not considered productive uses of water as important to control.

 

However, it is increasingly recognised that productive uses of water have particular value for low-income households and communities and have health and well-being benefits (Thompson et al., 2001). Direct health benefits are derived for example from improved nutrition and food security from gardens crops that have been watered. Indirect health benefits arise from improvements in household wealth from productive activity. In urban areas, this often is essential for low-income communities to meet nutritional requirements and may offer additional income from small-scale sales.

 

In 1993 Fass notes that in families living in ‘ultra-poverty’ water could form anywhere between 1.5 and 10% of the total production costs in household enterprises. The removal of a water supply, or deterioration in the quality of service, through decreased quantity or availability or increased intermittence or cost may lead to further poverty among poor households using this water for small-scale economic activities such as food production. The quality of water used for productive processes needs to be suitable for domestic supply where it is used for processing food for retail or in some circumstances irrigation for its production. (WHO: 2003)

 

III. Domestic Water Consumption and Supply (Develop / Developing Countries-Urban/ Rural)

 

In all over the world less than 3% of the available water is fresh – the rest is seawater and undrinkable. Of this 3% over 2.5% is frozen, locked up in Antarctica, the Arctic and glaciers, and not available to man. Thus humanity must rely on this 0.5% for all of man’s and ecosystem’s fresh water needs. 0.5 % of fresh water is available in the form of underground aquifers, rainfall falling , rivers, lakes, tanks and man made storage etc. 10,000,000 km3 stored in underground aquifers. Since 1950 there has been a rapid expansion of groundwater exploitation providing:

 

50% of all drinking water

 

40% of industrial water

 

20% of irrigation water

 

119,000 km3 net of rainfall falling water is available on land after accounting for evaporation. 91,000 km3 in natural lakes and over 5,000 km3 water available in manmade storage facilities reservoirs. There has been a 7 fold increase in global storage capacity since 1950. 2,120 km3 in rivers – constantly replaced from rainfall and melting snow and ice. Water is not distributed evenly over the globe. Fewer than 10 countries possess 60% of the world’s available fresh water supply these are Brazil, Russia, China, Canada, Indonesia, U.S., India, Columbia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. local variations within countries are also highly significant.(Facts and Figures, World Business Council for Sustainable Development , 2009)

 

Table 3

 

Competing water uses for main income groups of countries

 

 

Industrial use of water increases with country income, going from 10% for low- and middle- income countries to 59% for high-income countries

 

Source: “Water for People, Water for Life” United Nations World Water Development Report, UNESCO, 2003 ,www.unesdoc.unesco.org

 

Per capita water use is also different in various continents.

 

Table 4

 

Per capita water use in various continents

 

Source:(Narayan Hegde,2012 )

 

Water drawn-off is not necessarily entirely consumed and some portion may be returned for further use downstream. Domestic sector use refers to water supplied by public distribution systems. Note that some of this total may be used for small industrial and/or limited agricultural purposes. Industrial sector use is the quantity of water used by self-supplied industries not connected to a public distribution system. Agricultural sector use includes water used for irrigation and livestock watering, and does not account for agriculture directly dependent on rainfall. Included are figures for total annual water withdrawal and per capita water withdrawal.

 

The table derived from CIA world fact book shows the wide variation in water withdrawals for domestic use and per capita consumption from different nations. Humans need a minimum of two liters of drinking water per day to survive, which is less than one cubic meter per year.

 

Table 5

 

Country Comparison to the World

 

 

Table shows that there is a huge difference between urban and rural water consumption in all over the world

 

Table 6

 

Access to improve water Source

 

Source: Author

 

A study of 158 country suggested that 90 to 100 % population in rural areas have access to improved water sources in only 60 countries whereas 100% population in urban areas have access in 120 countries .There are 884 million people still using unimproved sources for drinking water and 2.6 billion people do not use improved sanitation (Who/UniCef, 2010). measured against the more precise and rigorous standards now defined under the right to water, some estimates are that the number of people without access to safe and reliable tap water in their homes is 3–4 billion.

 

The water supply and sanitation (Wss) sector has a low priority in many developing countries, where investments in health and education are often prioritized. furthermore, ‘since 1997 the proportion of development aid allocated to sanitation and drinking water fell from 8% to 5%, while development aid allocated to health increased from 7% to 11.5% and that for education remained steady at around 7%’ (Who/Un-Water, 2010, p. 15).

 

Domestic water supplyaffect the quality and quantity of domestic water consumption which is one of the important area of concern. Many years ago when everyone lived in rural areas, people would have to get their own water from rivers or from local wells, and many people still do supply their own water. In every society much work goes into supplying our houses with water. Nowadays, most people live in towns and cities, and communities have installed an organized structure called a public water-supply system to provide water to homes (and to some businesses and industries). These entities are known as the county or city water department.

 

III.I. Urban Water Supply

 

One way water is supplied to town residents is for the water department pump water from a reservoir, river, or well into a water tower, which often sits on high points in the town. The, using gravity (free!) the water flows through pipes all the way to the last house in subdivisions. In many rural areas where public water-supply systems don’t exist, homeowners have their own wells, but often still fill up a tank which supplies the water used to cook their cauliflower and turnip greens. In this way water generally gets to our homes in one of two ways. Either it is delivered by a city/county water department (or maybe from a private company), or people supply their own water, normally from a well. Water delivered to homes is called “public-supplied deliveries” and water that people supply themselves is called “self supplied”, and is almost always from groundwater. There is a huge gap between urban and rural water supply. Worldwide, 87% of the population gets its drinking water from improved sources, and the corresponding figure for developing regions is also high at 84% access is far greater, however, in urban areas (at 94%), while only 76% of rural populations have access to improved sources (Who/UniCef, 2010). Urban areas, although better served than rural areas, are struggling to keep up with population growth (Who/UniCef, 2010). projected demographic growth in urban areas raises concern (Who/UniCef, 2006).(WWDR-4) Between 2009 and 2050, the world population is expected to increase by 2.3 billion, from 6.8 to 9.1 billion (Undesa, 2009a). at the same time, urban populations are projected to increase by 2.9 billion, from 3.4 billion in 2009 to 6.3 billion total in 2050. Thus, the urban areas of the world are expected to absorb all of the population growth over the next four decades, while also drawing in some of the rural population. furthermore, most of the population growth expected in urban areas will be concentrated in the cities and towns of less developed regions (Un-habitat, 2006). This is an important concern for the planners as the low income countries urban authorities are not so equipped to supply the safe water for domestic consumption.

 

At present municipal water use is directly related to the quantity of water withdrawn by populations in cities, towns, housing estates, domestic and public service enterprises. The public supply also includes water for industry that provides directly for the needs of urban populations and this demand also consumes high quality water from the city water supply system. In many cities, a considerable quantity of water is used in market gardening and for watering vegetable gardens and domestic garden plots.

 

The volume of public water use depends on the size of an urban population and the services and utilities provided, such as the extent of pipe networks for supply and sewerage, or centralised hot-water supply where available. Also, much depends on climate conditions. In many large cities, present water withdrawal amounts to 300-600 litres per day per person.

 

By the end of this century, the specific per capita urban water withdrawal is expected to increase to 500-1000 litres per day in the industrially developed countries of Europe and North America. On the other hand, in developing, more agricultural countries found in Asia, Africa and Latin America, public water withdrawal is a mere 50-100 l/day. In certain individual regions with insufficient water resources, it is no more that 10-40 l/day of fresh water per person.

 

A greater part of the water that has been withdrawn from the urban water supply system is returned to the hydrological system after use (purified or not) as waste water, if urban sewerage networks operate effectively. The major sources of actual consumption consist of water lost through evaporation from leaking supply and sewerage pipes, from watering plants and recreational areas, washing streets, and garden plots. Thus, to a large extent, the extent of the loss also depends on climatic conditions. In hot, dry regions losses are certainly larger than those where it is cold and humid: water consumption for personal needs is insignificant as compared with water losses through evaporation.

 

Relative values for consumption are usually expressed as a percentage of water intake and depend to a considerable extent on the volume of water withdrawn for public supply. Thus, in modern cities equipped with centralised supply and efficient sewerage systems, the specific water withdrawal can be 400-600 l/day, and consumption is usually not above 5-10% of total water intake. Small cities with a large stock of individual buildings not fully provided with a centralised system, may have a specific water withdrawal of 100-150 l/day. Consumption increases significantly in this context and can reach 40-60%, with the lesser values occurring in northernmost and the larger values in the dry, southernmost regions.

 

The modern trend in the development of public water supply all over the world is the construction in both large and small cities of effective centralised water supply and sewerage systems, connecting together an even greater number of buildings and populated areas. In the future, however, the specific per capita water withdrawal is expected to increase, while water consumption per se, expressed as a percentage of water intake, will decrease considerably.

 

III.II Rural Water Supply

 

Rural water supply embraces the supply of drinking and household water to the rural population plus supply of the water required for purposes such as garden watering, rural water supply also includes the watering of livestock plus the supply of water for livestock watering, because in rural areas it is virtually impossible in practice to draw any clear distinction between drinking water for humans and drinking water for livestock.

 

The supply of water for general agricultural purposes does not come within the scope of rural water supply; in particular, rural water supply does not cover systems for the irrigation of fields or rural hydraulic engineering works. In contrast to urban water supply systems, there is no piped distribution in the majority of rural water supply systems. Exceptions to this rule are the supply pipes and the (generally quite short) runs of pipe that in deprived areas form the rudimentary networks supplying public stand-pipe systems in spread-out villages.

 

Water demand must, inevitably, adjust itself to the supply that is present and usable. Where it is simply a matter of supplying the rural population, demand is generally between 15 and 30 l per person per day (l/p/d) and sometimes even less, and it seldom rises to levels of more than 60 l/p/d (only where there are house and yard connections). To cover the demand for water for livestock, an additional 15 l/d will be needed for each small animal unit and around 75 l/d for each large animal unit.

 

Depending on the nature of the abstraction, rural water supply can be divided into the following types:

 

A   water supply from groundwater

 

B)   water supply from surface water based on B.1) use of surface waters and

 

2) use of water furnished by precipitation.

 

To meet demand, use is often made of all three resources simultaneously, where seasonal water availability permits.

 

Unlike public, urban, water supply where use is made of a (large) central abstraction system and reservoirs and a connected distribution system, what is typical of rural water supply is so-called “de-centralised” water supply systems where the beneficiaries often assist in constructing the system under self-help projects and later on become responsible for operating it. Relatively small groups of consumers ranging from a single family to village communities or nomadic herding communities obtain their water supplies from small, often scattered and sometimes widely separated individual abstraction systems with no distribution system, water carrying traditionally being the domain of women and girls in rural areas.

 

What is typical of de-centralised groundwater abstraction is dug or drilled wells or spring tappings. The lifting units in the systems are generally small, to match the number of consumers, the water resource and the generally limited constructional resources and their capacity is of the order of 1 m3/h in the case of village wells and up to 5 m3/h in the case of wells on pasture land.

 

Lifting is generally carried out by traditional means operated either by hand or by draught animals, though use may also be made of mechanical lifting aids such as hand-operated or motor-driven (generally diesel) pumps, bucket chains, etc. Artesian wells, in which the water is confined and rises to the surface without the need for lifting, are rare. In some cases water is lifted into community tanks, which are closed tanks of 2 – 6 m3 capacity fitted with a tap.

 

The characteristic feature of abstraction from surface waters is small impoundment works (normally earth dams). The hallmark of precipitation water use is cisterns (ranging from buckets through water barrels up to closed tanks made of concrete, sheet steel or plastic) and the associated intercepting and collecting surfaces (roofs, sealed upland slopes, etc.).

 

The predominant method of conveying water between the point of abstraction and the point of consumption is still transport in portable containers or by donkey, generally a job done by women and girls. Supply pipes are rare and generally very short. Transport considerations mean that drinking troughs for livestock are generally sited immediately adjacent to the abstraction or collecting point.

 

An important part in rural water supply projects is played by local measures to regulate the supply, particularly when the amount of water available is restricted. Such measures include for example restrictions on the daily periods of withdrawal and pumping and on the volumes lifted, and measures to control consumption such as suitable pricing.

 

VI. Domestic Water Use In India

 

With an average annual rainfall of 1,170 mm, India is one of the wettest countries in the world. India’s groundwater resources are almost ten times its annual rainfall. According to the Central Groundwater Board of the Government of India, the country has an annual exploitable groundwater potential of 26.5 million hectare-meters. Nearly 85% of currently exploited groundwater is used only for irrigation besides, groundwater is now the source of four-fifths of the domestic water supply in rural areas, and around half that of urban and industrial areas. However, according to the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) estimates India is using its underground water resources at least twice as fast they are being replenished.

 

There are 14 major, 44 medium and 55 minor river basins in the country. The major river basins constitute about 83-84% of the total drainage area. This, along with the medium river basins, accounts for 91% of the country’s total drainage. Water availability on the Indian subcontinent is strongly influenced by a number of climatic and geographic factors. Together these combine to provide India with enough freshwater to meet the various demands arising from the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors. However, the actual distribution of water resources over space and time limits access to certain geographic regions and a few months of the year. Government policies and economic incentives have also influenced the water distribution and consumption across India.

 

Table 7

 

Per capita water availability in India

 

Source: Government of India, 2009.

 

The above table show that per capita water availability is declining and also showing the declining trend in coming future. However demand from the domestic sector has remained low and accounts for only 5% of the annual freshwater withdrawals in India.( World Resources Institute, 2000) Europe has the highest domestic water consumption and the African continent is known for the lowest consumption of domestic water.

 

Table 8.

 

Current water usage

Source: Narayan Hegde,2012

 

The demand from domestic sector over the next twenty years will increase from 25 billion m3 to 52 billion m3. However, this increase in the demand from the domestic sector will not be as much as that from other sectors over the next several years.( Development Alternatives Website) Currently, only 85% of the urban and 79% of the rural population has access to safe drinking water and fewer still have access to adequate sanitation facilities.

   Table 9

 

Future water usage

Source: Narayan Hegde,2012

 

This show that the overall water availability is declining and at the same time demand is increasing which require the immediate interjection from the public as well as the government side .

 

Box III

WATER STRESS

 

The concept of water stress is relatively simple: it applies to situations where thereis not enough water for all uses, whether agricultural, industrial or domestic.Defining thresholds for stress in terms of available water per capita is morecomplex, however, entailing assumptions about water use and its efficiency.Nevertheless, it has been proposed that when annual per capita renewable freshwater availability is less than 1,700 cubic meters, countries begin toexperience periodic or regular water stress. Below 1,000 cubic meters, waterscarcity begins to hamper economic development and human health and well-being.

 

According to the widely used Falkenmark Water Stress Iindex, countries or basins with less than 1,700 cu.m percapita of renewable water are considered water-stressed, less than 1,000 cu.m per capita are considered waterscarce and less than 500 cu.m per capita are considered to be facing absolute water scarcity.

 

The Falkenmark index, like any index, has its own set of limitations. For example, it does not account for intrabasin differences, differences in consumption, and also does not take into account the accessibility or quality of water. The index has been used here to give an indication of severity of the scarcity.

 

VI.I Domestic Water Consumption in Rural Areas of India

 

The rural habitations have been provided access to the safe drinking water from nearly 3 million hand pumps and stand posts and about 0.11million mini and regional piped water supply schemes. More than 85 present of rural water supply is ground water based and consumes about 5 percent of the total annual replenishable ground water. The Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) was introduced in 1972-73 by the Government of India to assist the States and Union Territories (UTs) to accelerate the pace of coverage of drinking water supply. The entire programme was given a Mission approach with the launch of the Technology Mission on Drinking Water and Related Water Management in 1986. Later in 1999 Department of Drinking Water Supply was formed to give more emphasis on Rural Water Supply programme.

 

Reforms in the rural drinking water sector were adopted in 1999 through Sector Reform Project (SRP) on pilot basis and have been scaled up throughout the country in the form of Swajaldhara launched on 25th December 2002. The programme is a paradigm shift from supply driven to demand driven, centralized to decentralized implementation and Government’s role from service provider to facilitator. The fundamental reform principles in Swajaldhara are adhered to by the State Governments and the Implementing Agencies in terms of adoption of a demand-responsive approach with community participation.

 

Right now the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation administers the National Rural DrinkingWater programme (NRDWP) instituted from 1/4/2009, through which support is extended to the states for implementing rural domestic water supply schemes. Powers to sanction individual projects is given to the states through their State Level Scheme Sanctioning Committees. Activities like, water quality monitoring and surveillance programme, management information system, IEC, Capacity and Communication Development Unit (CCDU) all were brought under the umbrella of NRDWP.

 

Investments in the Plan Periods

 

The following investments were made in rural domestic water supply and ruralsanitation in the preceding Plans since the era of planning started in the country afterIndependence.

 

Table 10: Investments in Domestic Water and Sanitation – 1951 to 2012 (Rs. In crore)

 

Despite the combined efforts of both the Centre and the States by investing more than Rs 1,35,000 crore the goal of providing safe and adequate domestic water to every rural person in the country still remains to be fully achieved.

 

The Uncovered habitations as of 1st April, 2005,were 55,067 (4,588 Not Covered, and 50,479 partially Covered) of which 55067 uncovered habitations were covered as on 01st April, 2011. However, out of the total number of 16, 64,186 habitations in India, the States reported that 477426 habitations, 28.69 (%) were partially covered and 7.2 (%) habitations were water quality affected ason 1st April, 2011. The reasons for this include: a) the inclusion of newly formed periurbanhabitations and small habitations with less than 100 persons in line with NRDWPguidelines. b) Slippage of covered habitations due to poor O&M and drying up ofsources. c) Increase in population and growth of settlements. d) increasingcontamination of sources due to natural and manmade causes e) Increased testing ofsources and improved knowledge of quality affected areas. f) changing norms ofcoverage adopted by the States due to flexibility given under NRDWP.

 

It may be seen that as against the target of 653798 habitations to be coveredduring the 11th Five year Plan, the coverage up to 31st March 2011 was526667(80.56%). As the States of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,Nagaland, M.P., Orissa, Himachal, Tamilnadu, Kerala and Uttarakhand have shownexceeded their targets whereas Sikkim, Punjab, Assam, Rajasthan, Arunachal Pradesh& Jammu & Kashmir have reported low (less than 50%) achievement against targets.

 

There is no question that India has been successful in providing access to basicwater supply facilities for more than 90% of rural households. The challenge now ishow to provide higher levels of service with sustainable sources and systems thatprovide good quality water to a growing population.

 

The number of piped water supply systems in rural areas is rapidly increasing, drivenin part by water resource constraints, but increasingly because people want a higherlevel of service. In 2010, about one third of rural households already use pipedwater, and about one third of these have house cnnections. However it should benoted that there are significant inequalities between the rich and the poor and thisneeds to be addressed in moving forward. For example, while about 32% of the richpeople have piped connections on their premises, only about 1% of the poorest havethis facility.

 

In rural areas, there has been a gradual increase in the share of both the sources‘tap’ and tube well/hand pump, and a corresponding decrease in the share of ‘well’.

 

According to the NSSO data in 1998, only about 19 percent of the rural householdsused ‘tap’ (PWS) as source of drinking water, which rose to cover more than 30percent in 2008-09. Further there is an ever increasing demand for water in therural areas from agriculture, and large water consuming industries. This everincreasing demand puts pressure on aquifers which may not be feasible inconsidering the inherent quantity and quality problems.

 

Table 11: Coverage of Water Supply

 

Table 12: Coverage of Water Supply

 

It may also be noted that, due to increased awareness; those who had beendrawing water from unprotected sources have declined considerably in later years.There is only 5% increase in the effective coverage of population through tube well.Tube wells except in the alluvial areas are increasingly seen as sources are dryingup in many seasons.

 

In rural areas, majority of the households had drinking water outside the premisesand had to travel to access the source of drinking water whereas in urbanareas it is not so. In rural areas, nearly 41 per cent of the households haddrinking water facility within the premises where as in the urban areas thesituation was much better with nearly three-fourth of the urban households havingdrinking water facility within the premises. Majority of the households (nearly 57per cent) in rural areas had to travel distances of upto 0.5 km. This results indrudgery and accelerated poverty especially among women and children who haveto bear the responsibility of fetching water. It is the poorest of the poor whogenerally bear the brunt of the load.However there are large inter-state variations in the coverage of households withpiped water supply. The percentage of piped water supplyvaries from 1.1%% in Bihar to 99.1% in Puducherry and 87.3% in Tamilnadu. Thereare 8 States viz. Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa, Assam, Chhattisgarh,West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh that have less than 10% coverage of householdswith piped water supply. Special efforts need to be initiated during this plan to raisethem up also at least at par with that of other states.

 

Right to life is not possible without provision of right to drinking and domesticwater. India being a signatory to global agreements should progressively worktowards the Right to Domestic Water (Ministry of Drinking Water and SanitationGovernment of India, September 2011, Report of the Working Group onRural Domestic Water and Sanitation )

 

VI.II Urban Water Supply in India

 

Half of humanity now lives in cities, and within two decades, nearly 60 per cent of the world’s people will be urban dwellers. Urban growth is most rapid in the developing world, where cities gain an average of 5 million residents every month. The exploding urban population growth creates unprecedented challenges, among which provision for water and sanitation have been the most pressing and painfully felt when lacking. According to the 2011 census, India has a total population of 1.21 billion, which is an addition of 181 million people during the decade of 2001–2011 (Census of India, 2011b). Although only 31.16 per cent of India is urban according to the Census of India, at 377 million, India’s current urban population is larger than the entire population of United States which is the third most populous country in the world.

 

The distribution of households according to the primary source of drinkingwater reported by Census 2011, nearly 70 per cent households have access to tap water, outof which 62 per cent have access to treated tap water. Thus, nearly 40 per cent of urbanhouseholds have no access to public supply, and have to depend on other sources of water.Moreover, not all households that have access to public supply have access to it within thepremise. Only 49 per cent of households have access to piped water supply withintheir premises.There is a gradual increase from 1990 to 2008 in the percentage of households with access to ‘improved’ drinking water, but then a decline in 2011. However, this decline is due to the availability of fine-grained data. Earlier all tap water was taken as ‘improved’ whereas disaggregated data has become available in 2011 for treated and untreated tap water categories. Similar is the case with water from wells. If untreated tap water and uncovered wells are included in the improved category, then the proportion of households which have access to improved sources would be 98 per cent in Comparing Census 2001 and 2011, one can see that nearly 18 million additional households have obtained access to tap water whereas the overall share across different water sources appears to have changed only marginally. This data does not show poor quality of service provisioning in slums: the distance between source of water and house, and shared facilities.

 

There are differences in access to public supply across districts, class size, and states.A large percentage of households still do not having access to piped water supply, alarge percentage of households do not have access to water within the house .Nearly two-thirds of the households do not have access to water withinthe house, and 8 per cent of households need to fetch water from more than 100metres away from their households. The proportion of households with water source within their premises among slum households is lower (57%) compared to 71% for overall urban India (Census, 2011). The biggest concern is that most cities do not provide the quantum of water according toexisting per capita norms. While Indian cities are supposed to conform to the standards laiddown in the Manual on Water Supply and Treatment (CPHEEO, 1999), the cities are rarelyable to meet these standards. Most of the Indian cities clearly receive only 69 lpcd, asopposed to the norm of 135 lpcd.Some larger cities like Delhi provide water supply far above this norm (Narain, 2012a). Butthese averages tend to mask huge inequities within the system. The extreme example of thisis Mumbai, where Narain (2012b) estimates 46 per cent of the city to be using 95 per cent ofthe water since 54 per cent of the city officially lives in slums and consumes only about 5 percent of the supplied water.(IIHS RF paper on urban water supply and sanitatin,2014)

 

In addition to inadequate quantity, the water supply in almost all cities is intermittent andoften of questionable quality (Shaban and Sharma (2007); Narain (2012a)). Almost no city inIndia provides 24 hour water supply and a four-to-five hour water supply seems to be thenorm (McKenzie and Ray (2009) ;Narain (2012a)). The SLB data shows that the duration ofsupply is only 2–3 hours on average.As a consequence of poor service standards, the households need to engage in a range ofcoping mechanisms. The biggest one of these coping mechanisms is dependence on multiplesources of water. Households depend either on small-scale private players like tankers or onself-provisioning, typically through tube-wells or hand-pumps. In absence of continuousstorage mechanisms, the households invest in storage devices—the poor store water in jerrycansand small tanks, while middle-class households invest in underground and/or overheadtanks (BWSSB/AusAID, 2002; IIHS, 2014). The middle and rich households also investmoney in sumps to pump water to overhead tanks. Thus, there is considerableinvestment from households to ensure that they have adequate water supply.(IIHS RF paper on urban water supply and sanitatin,2014)

 

Water Sources for Indian Cities

 

Indian cities depend on either surface water, or ground water, and more commonly on a mixof ground and surface water. Whether the city is getting water from surface or groundsources, there are a set of environmental concerns with both, which are highlighted in thissection.

 

Increasing Distances between Cities and Their Water Sources

    Increasingly, urban areas draw upon a vast regional territory to provide waterto resident populations.

 

Table below gives an indication of the large distances fromwhich cities draw water.

 

Table 13

 

Sample Cities and Distance from their Water Sources

 

Source: http://www.downtoearth.org.in/water_day2012/waterday2012.pdf

 

Using the survey of water utilities completed by the National Institute of Urban Affairs(NIUA) in 2002, S. Mukherjee, Shah, and Kumar (2010) identify that cities with largerpopulations rely more on surface water as opposed to groundwater sources.While cities depend on faraway sources, there is little evidence of source conservation orprotection. There are concerns about drawing water from distant sources because it leads tohuge energy costs. The possibility of water losses also increases as the distance increases.This dependence of urban areas for surface water outside their territory has begun to giverise to conflict with other uses. The case of Chennai and the Telugu-Ganga project is anexample of urban surface water demand resulting in direct competition with rural user .Cities like Hyderabad (Celio& Giordano, 2007) and New Delhi (Swain, 1998) are also incontinual negotiations with surrounding agricultural areas for their water supply, in additionto drawing water from distant sources..(IIHS RF paper on urban water supply and sanitatin,2014)

 

Depleting Ground Water Aquifers

 

While urban India is highly dependent on groundwater, the extent and nature of thisdependence is poorly understood. Urban households access groundwater through threeprimary means:

 

a)  public supply by urban local bodies or other parastatal agencies which may be completely or partially dependent on groundwater,

 

b)  private supply from shallow

 

Excess withdrawal from surface water bodies can also cause ecosystem disruption, if the quantity of water in rivers and lakes are not sufficient for normal ecosystem functioning (Bunn and Arthington, 2002), although studies of this nature are rare in India.

 

Given the multiplicity of means by which urban India depends on water, it is difficult toestimate the extent of the dependence. There are no reliable or comprehensive estimatesabout groundwater use in Indian cities. According to Grönwall, Mulenga, and McGranahan(2010), the statement that ‘half of urban population in India depends on groundwater’ isfound in most official government documents related to urban water supply, including thosefrom the Central Groundwater Board and the Ministry of Water Resources, although thesource of this figure is never described. Using data on discrepancy between estimated and actual sewerage generation and the gap between official water supply and actual waterdemand estimates, Narain (2012b) calculates that 53–58 per cent of total urban water use ina sample of 71 cities is dependent on some means of groundwater..(IIHS RF paper on urban water supply and sanitatin,2014)

 

The clearest evidence perhaps exists for direct groundwater dependence. Table 11 illustratesthe distribution of households dependent on groundwater across class size. Nearly one-thirdof households are directly dependent on groundwater, and the proportion of householdsdependent on groundwater increases in smaller cities.

 

Table14

 

Percentage of Households in cities directly Dependent on Groundwater

 

Source :IIHS RF paper on urban water supply and sanitatin,2014

 

There is an increasing dependence on ground water for a variety of reasons. For households,in the absence of adequate public supply, privately extracted groundwater (at householdlevels) is the cheapest and most easily accessible alternative for most citizens. Studies fromChennai (Srinivasan, Gorelick, &Goulder, 2010) indicate that informal water tradinginvolving supply in water tankers is 3– 50 times more expensive than municipal or privatebore well water. In Aurangabad, Foster and Mandavkar (2008) find private bore well waterto cost around Rs 7–11/cu.m., while tanker supply costs approximately Rs 60/cu.m.However, all households might not have the means (land, money, etc.) to extract and usegroundwater. Given this, and in absence of adequate public supply, informal groundwatermarkets have emerged in some parts of the country. These markets have not beendocumented and studied enough, except in the case of Chennai and Bangalore. Thesemarkets also remain outside the purview of regulation. The exception again here is Chennai,where the government utility responsible for water distribution has contracted tankercompanies to purchase groundwater extracted from peri-urban areas (Joel Ruet et al. ,2002)

 

Apart from households and private markets, public utilities often depend on groundwater.Sometimes, the urban local bodies depend on groundwater in absence of a viable surfacewater source. However, many urban local bodies also tend to rely on groundwater for publicsupply even when surface water resources are available because of the lower capitalinvestments required and the ease of scaling up supply to meet gradual growth in demand(World Bank, 2010).

 

This prevalent, almost ubiquitous dependence on groundwater can perhaps be traced back toa set of laws that entitle the landowners (households, private company, public body) toextract unlimited water from aquifers. The Easement Act of 1882 recognises water as aneasement of added benefit which is inextricably linked with land. This notion is reinforced bythe Transfer of Property Act of 1882 and the Land Acquisition Act of 1894 (Iyer, 2007;Saleth, 2009). While the Central Groundwater Authority has been created to regulate suchindiscriminate withdrawal, it faces an uphill task due to the very large number of bore wellsand also due to the non-availability of other sources in many areas (Narain, 2012a)..(IIHS RF paper on urban water supply and sanitatin,2014)

 

While so far the groundwater dependence was limited to area of the city, cities areincreasingly going further in search of groundwater. The most well-known example hereremains Chennai. The utility buys groundwater from the farmers in peri-urban areas. (JoëlRuet et al., 2007)..(IIHS RF paper on urban water supply and sanitatin,2014)

 

This groundwater dependence has several consequences: the most prominent one beingdepletion of urban aquifers. In the context of urban groundwater, the dominant narrativeone finds in the popular media is one of rapidly depleting urban aquifers (Lalchandani(2011); Times News (2011); Ghosh (2012)). But the reality is much more nuanced. Within thesame city, water tables are typically falling in parts which are heavily dependent ongroundwater, while water levels are rising in the older parts which often have piped watersupply. This variation is primarily because of high rates of leakage from water supply andwastewater pipelines (CGWB, 2011). While exact pattern varies, excessive groundwater extraction, leading to the depletion ofaquifers remains a concern. In addition to a depletion of groundwater aquifers, coastal citieswhich are heavily dependent on groundwater face the risk of sea water intrusion in aquifersdue to the pressure difference caused by groundwater extraction. There is evidence of salinewater intrusion in Chennai (Ramesh, Kumar, Eswaramoorthi, &Purvaja, 1995), Calicut(Raju et al., 2007) and Kutch and Saurashtra in southern Gujarat (Moench,1992; T.Shah,2008). Excessive extraction of groundwater can also cause intrusion of polluted surfacewater from rivers or lakes. This has been documented in the case of Lucknow by Foster andChoudhary (2009)..(IIHS RF paper on urban water supply and sanitatin,2014)

 

The depletion of aquifers has prompted many cities in India to initiate efforts to encourageresidents to instal rainwater recharge structures Since 2002, many municipal corporations and states in India have passed legislations mandating the construction of rainwater recharge structures in all new buildings (CSE, 2010). Although some of these legislations do have the caveat that exempt waterlogged areas, in general the legislations do not take into account soil or aquifer conditions which can vary widely within the same city..(IIHS RF paper on urban water supply and sanitatin,2014)

 

This analysis suggest that two main challenges related to water are affecting the sustainability of Indian urban settlements: the lack of access to safe water and sanitation, and increasing water-related disasters such as floods and droughts. These problems have enormous consequences on human health and well-being, safety, the environment, economic growth and development. The lack of adequate water and sanitation facilities leads to health issues such as diarrhoea, malaria and cholera outbreaks. Though water supply and sanitation coverage increased in last few years , the growth of urban populations jeopardizes those results.

 

Those who suffer the most of these water-related challenges are the urban poor, often living in slum areas or informal settlements following rapid urban growth, in situations lacking many of life’s basic necessities: safe drinking water, adequate sanitation services and access to health services, durable housing and secure tenure..(IIHS RF paper on urban water supply and sanitatin,2014)

 

Summing Up

 

Humans use over half of all accessible water runoff. Of total water use less than 10% is used for domestic use. Households are the smallest consumers of water, but have a large potential impact. Users have the most influence at the household level and can experiment with strategies to develop water saving habits to implement outside of the home. Household water use is the largest growing sector (upwards of 80% over the next 25 years). Household water use is a testing ground for creating the strategies and social behaviours necessary for water use reduction in agriculture and industry.

 

As per the paper authored by Ms. Sabrina Barker UNEP GEMS / Water Programme, Kenya, well-managed water resources have helped to promote economic development, which in turn contributes to human well-being. Services provided by inland waters are vital for human well-being and poverty alleviation. It has been estimated that for each dollar invested in improving water and sanitation, a return of $3-34 can be expected. The economic benefits of simultaneously meeting the drinking water and sanitation targets on households and the health sector amounts to $ 84 billion per year, representing reduced health care costs, value of days gained from reduced illness, averted deaths, and time savings from proximity to drinking water and sanitation facilities for productive endeavour.

 

Some measures for Reducing Water Consumption at Home

  • Avoid unnecessary flushing of the toilet
  • Low flow toilets and dual flush toilets save considerable amounts of water
  • Use foaming soap for washing the hands. This allows users to only user water for rinsing instead of for soaping up and rinsing.
  • Install water tap aerators or more efficient fixtures.
  • If taking a bath, only fill the tub/bucket with as much water as needed.
  • Use the water after having a bath for your garden, or use it to wash your car.
  • Avoid washing clothes unnecessarily.
  • While using washing machine to wash the cloths wash with a full load and you will save 10 litres of water each wash.
  • A running tap uses about 16 litres of water per minute. Turn the tap off when brushing your teeth. Wet your brush and use a glass for rinsing.
  • Identify and address the outdoor and indoor  leaks.
  • Use the rinse-hold setting on the dishwasher, if it has one, rather than rinsing dishes under the tap. When washing dishes by hand, do not rinse them under a running tap.
  • Avoid keeping water running when washing fruits and vegetables. Washing them in a bowl conserves water.
  • In developing countries, most water supplies are unmetered. In many instances, water standpipes or blocks of houses have never been fitted with meters, or they have been broken. In these cases, neither water departments nor individual end-users know how much aterwater, water losses through broken pipes , and water wastage can only be determined if appropriate metering takes place.

 

you can view video on Domestic use of water-general trends and issues of water supply in urban and rural areas

 

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