31 Dead Bodies and Animal Carcass Management

Dr. Rajnish Ranjan

Objectives

• To reflect on dead body and animal carcass management and its significance in post disaster scenarios
• To understand the process of dead body management
• To understand the process of animal carcass management

    Keywords

Dead Body  Management

Dead Bodies and Animal Carcass Management

Image Source – South China Morning Post

   Unit 1 – Management of Dead Bodies and Animal Carcass- Basic Concept

Definition – The management of dead bodies in post disaster scenario includes the process of search and recovery, transportation, storage, identification and disposal of dead bodies. In the disposal phase the identified bodies are handed over to the relatives while the unidentified bodies are buried in consultation with the concerned local authorities and medico legal experts. The process is also called Human Remains Management (HRM).

In a similar manner, Animal carcass management is the process of disposal of dead animals.

The process of dead bodies and animal carcasses management is essential in case of deaths due to natural/anthropogenic disasters (earthquake, flood, riots etc.) as well as deaths resulting from infectious diseases (Ebola, Foot and mouth disease etc.).

Agencies involved in the management of dead bodies during the initial stages are local communities and local organizations. Special search and rescue teams and forensic experts take over after the initial phase and take care of the complicated processes involved in dead body management. According to National Disaster Management Guidelines issued by NDMA in 2010, the key agencies involved in this process includes Disaster management authorities, Medical and Forensic professionals, Fire services, Police, Civil Defence, NDRF and other paramilitary forces, NGOs and communities at large.

The management of animal carcasses is taken care of by the local communities and the administration. In case of specific requirements, animal welfare bodies, veterinary bodies and organizations with specialised knowledge are also involved in the operation. According to the National Disaster Management Plan 2016, the lead agency for the disposal of animal carcass is Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare and Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying, and Fisheries with supporting agencies Ministry of Home Affairs and Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

Why dead body and animal carcass management is important?

Respecting the identity of the deceased and maintaining individuality of the victims is very important during post disaster situations. The mismanagement or unethical treatment of dead bodies has a profound and lasting effect on the mental health of survivors and communities. Poor management of dead bodies deny the relatives of the deceased a chance to grieve (which helps in psychological healing) and therefore, causes additional stress. A systematic identification has significance in the medico-legal context as well and also assists the family in claiming insurance and inheritance.

Dead body management is complex in the functioning as it not only involves the management of bodies remains, but also taking care of the social, cultural and psychological aspects surrounding them. In a large disaster situation, the scenario gets complicated by the number of unwarranted deaths and also the destruction of disposal structures. The absence of professional inputs and the lack of proper planning amplifies the issues faced in proper management of dead bodies.

In the case of Animal Carcasses management, medico legal contexts and bio security is also the primary concern. Additionally dead body and animal carcass management become very significant in case of death from infectious diseases to prevent further spread of the disease.

Existing Manuals and Guidelines on the Disposal of Dead Bodies and Animal Carcasses Management

Management of Dead Bodies in Disaster Situations by PAN American Health Organization (PAHO) and World Health Organization (WHO) provide detailed guidelines. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in the manual “Management of Dead Bodies after Disasters” choosespreferred the term “dead bodies” over “human remains” to be less ambiguous. It provides a brief list of key tasks which can be photocopied and distributed among volunteers responsible for dead body management. The “National Disaster Management Guidelines – Management of the Dead in the Aftermath of the Disasters” not only focuses on the Human Dead Bodies, but also on the animal carcasses and gives standard operating procedures for identification, implementation, logistics, training, response and recovery. It also focuses on the research, development and the financing of the support institutions. There are multiple other such guidelines issues by local authorities and departments.

Unit 2 – Dead body management

A case study is utilized to illustrate the issues faced in dead body management post disasters.

Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004

Source – STR/AFP/Getty Images

Following the Tsunami in December, 2004, massive casualties overwhelmed the concerned authorities for dead body management. In a study carried out in countries like Thailand, Indonesia and Sri Lanka, it was observed that different processes were followed by different countries for dead body management. A standard framework of management was lacking.

In these nations, the first phase of dead body management was uncoordinated and haphazard with multiple agencies involved. Tracking and tracing the bodies became extremely difficult for relatives and family members of the deceased.

The sufficient refrigerated storage facilities were unavailable and temporary burial in shallow graves were utilised in some places, with the objective of exhuming bodies for identification later. In some cases dry ice was used, but this led to damage of bodies. Dry ice also caused burning of skins of people handing it . Therefore, the bodies were left in the open or buried in mass burials.

The identification process of victims also varied in different countries . In Indonesia, simple visual identification process was followed in the initial days. As the bodies started decomposing, there were serious concerns with visual identification. The identification process was then facilitated utilising telephone SIM cards, id cards and jewellery. In Sri Lanka, the deceased were photographed and fingerprints were collected. But due to lack of funds, many photographs could not be developed. At a hospital in Matara, digital photographs were taken with basic information recorded, like sex, height and body characteristics. Following this process over 87% of the 547 victims handled by the hospital were identified. Separate processes were followed for foreign tourists who were buried properly. Future exhumation carried out for dead bodies of identified individuals from 18 different nations. Thailand also followed a systematic process. External examination, personal effects, photographs, fingerprints, forensic pathological examination, dental examination, and DNA sampling from bone and teeth were collected and examined. 2,010 victims were identified while over 1,800 bodies stayed unidentified.

Fast disposal of human remains due to health concerns and religious sentiments, mass burial and unsystematic disposal of dead bodies was observed specially in rural areas where no formal body recovery and remains disposal process was followed. It created severe issues in identification in later phases.

The following key issues were emerged from the above discussions –

Logistical challenges and lack of available equipments for dead body management Storage of dead bodies in dignified and aesthetic manner

Access to and retrieval of bodies

Lack of provisions to conduct post mortem/forensic reports to fasten the process of dead

body identification and delivering the body to claimants Cultural and religious considerations

Legal issues

Work related injury of personnel involved in the process

Apart from the above mentioned issues, the following concerns also arise:

Environmental issues in disposing human remains

Issues with identification of burial/incineration sites including risk of the contamination of water sources- the height of water table or proximity of streams and wells to the burial site is to be considered while selecting locations for mass burial.

Methods and procedures –

To address the issues mentioned above, guidelines have been issued by various humanitarian agencies and state disaster management agencies. The common procedures suggested are as follows:

According  to the  NDMA  2010  guidelines,  community,  specialised  professionals and trained dog squads for recovery of the dead should be used.

Large  trucks  with  canopy  should  be  used  to  maintain  dignity  of  the  dead,  during transportation (if hearse vans are not available or are inadequate).

The dead body should be kept in body bags and if that are not available then plastic sheets, shrouds, bed sheets and other locally available material should be used.

Each body parts should be treated separately.

The body recovery workers should work in two groups, first group to take the body to the place where they are being gathered and the second team works in identifying the bodies. Location where the body was found must be noted as it could help in identification of the dead body.

    The belongings of the person should not be separated from the person only except during its identification.

Body bags, stretchers and trucks should be used for disposing off the dead bodies. Ambulances should not be used as it helps in carrying the living persons.

Specially designed Refrigerators are best suited for temporary storage of dead bodies. Without cold storage, decomposition advances quickly. During hot weather conditions, the body should be stored for a maximum of 12 to 48 hours. When storage facility is used the body should be stored separately or wrapped in a separate sheet and labelled properly for identification. The identification of the body should be done in such a manner that the identification mark cannot be erased.

The body should be kept in refrigerator between 2 degrees to 4 degrees Celsius. Big refrigerators which are being used by the ships can be used to store dead bodies of up to 50 persons.

Without  cold  storage  the  decomposition advances  quickly,  and  moreover  during hot weather the body should be stored within 12 to 48 hours. Whichever storage facility is used the body should be stored separately or wrapped in a separate sheet and label the body properly for identification. The identification of the body should be done properly in such a manner that the identification mark cannot be erased.

The body should be kept in refrigerator between 2 degrees to 4 degrees Celsius. The big refrigerators which are being used by the ships can be used to store dead bodies of up to 50 persons.

Dry ice can be used but it should be handled with care. Ice should be avoided.

In the absence of refrigerated storage, trench graves can be used. Bodies which are kept underneath the earth surface remain cool as the temperature beneath the surface remains cooler than the earth’s surface. The bodies should be buried at a depth of 1.5m and at least 200m away from water sources. The body should be laid in one layer only and 0.4m space should be maintained between each dead body. The positions of bodies should be marked at the ground level.

    While carrying out burial, dead bodies should be marked properly ,so that afterwards when required for any verification lack of identification may not be a problem.

Identification  of  dead  bodies  should  be  done  rapidly  after  disasters  because  after decomposition, identifying dead bodies become difficult and may take a longer time. Some steps which are to be followed during identification are as follows:

Unique reference number of a particular format should be assigned to each body or body parts and no duplicate number should be there.

A waterproof label or papers sealed in plastic pouch must be used to write the unique reference number. It should be attached to the body or body parts, and another waterproof label with the unique reference number should also be attached to the container of the body.

Photographs should be taken. The unique reference number on waterproof label should be properly visible on the photographs. Usage of digital camera would be easier for storage and distribution of photographs.

Record should be kept about the person with respect to gender, age, personal belongings, and marks on the skin.

The personal belongings of the person should be kept secure with reference to the unique identification number that has been labelled and clothes should be left on the body. Based on the identification and supported documents, financial Relief from Calamity Relief Fund and National Calamity Contingency Fund by the Government shall be provided as per the provisions.

Long term disposal of dead bodies

All the identified dead bodies should be disposed off or handed over to the family members or relatives of the person based on valid proof , so that the body could be disposed off according to the local customs. The dead bodies which could not be identified may be stored for a longer period of time.

Burial is the best way for long term storage of dead bodies. The site of the burial should be located in suitable place based on the type of soil, water level etc. The burial site should be acceptable by the community living there and close enough for the community to visit.

For permanent burial, depending on the no. of bodies buried, the distance from the drinking water source should vary from 200m to 350m.

If incineration or any other practice is the culturally accepted way of dead body disposal, it should be followed unless it poses any risk.

Other factors to be considered during dead body management:

Unless death of the victim is from any contagious disease like cholera, plague etc., the dead body cannot spread epidemics. Pan American Health Organization and World Health Organization (PAHO/WHO) states that there is no evidence of disease spreading from dead bodies as the victims of natural disasters die in trauma, drowning, fire etc., which are not contagious. Contamination of drinking water from faecal matter of the dead bodies poses the risk of diarrhoea. Regular disinfection of drinking water can address this issue.

Diseases like diarrhoea, Hepatitis B and C and TB etc. may last for up to two days inside the body of victim.

Diseases like HIV survive up to six days inside the body of the victim.

The persistence of the disease causing agents varies across diseases and proper care should be taken accordingly.

There is no effect of disinfectants (like bleaching powder etc) on the dead body. It can only provide relief from the smell coming out of decomposing corpses.

Use of heavy machines and bulldozers in retrieval of dead bodies cause mental trauma to the community and relief workers. Dead bodies should be handled in a dignified and sober way.

Cremation often destroy evidence for future identification. Cremations also cause logistical issues. Unless cremation is the accepted religious and cultural practice, it should be avoided.

Unidentified corpses should be buried in individual graves, not only as a basic right of the victim but also for legal issues that might arise later.

Ceremonial processes and dignified management of the dead bodies help relatives and closed ones of the deceased in the healing process. The practice of grieving and observing cultural and religious events help people concede to the loss. It should be allowed as long as it does not pose any risk and threat. In case of death from infectious diseases like Ebola, cholera etc., community awareness should be generated and practices like washing and kissing the dead body should be prevented in consultation with health practitioners. The process should vary across the cause of the death.

Recommendations for managing dead body after natural disasters

Coordination is one of the pivotal aspects and is needed at several levels: local, regional and national. Disaster preparedness plans are in place taking coordination structure into consideration.

The ICRC guidelines suggest to

Nominate an individual as regional or national coordinator and authorize him to manage the dead bodies properly

Establish co ordination group to communicate with public and media, to help with legal issues, technical and logistical support and issuance of death certificates and liaison with different administrative bodies.

Danger to body handlers

Individuals who are handling dead bodies are exposed to some risks when they come in contact with blood and faeces of the dead persons dying out of hepatitis B and C, HIV, tuberculosis and diarrheal disease.

Dead body recovery teams working in a hazardous environment are at the risk of tetanus and injury.

Strict adherence to the guidelines should be ensured in Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear disasters.

Precautions that should be taken by body handlers

The teams working in dead body management should follow basic hygiene, wear gloves and boots, wash their hands with soap after carrying dead bodies and before eating, avoid wiping their face or mouth with their hands and disinfect equipments and vehicles after the process is over.

Face mask is not necessary, but should be provided to prevent anxiety and smell.

Recovery from unventilated spaces should be done carefully avoiding toxic gases.

First aid and medical treatment teams should be available.

Unit 3 – Animal Carcasses Management

Animal carcass, largely considered as debris, is another key concern post disasters. Utilising two case studies, the difficulties faced in animal carcass disposal (primarily in case of disasters like cyclone and flood or in case of infectious animal diseases) where massive numbers of cattle and livestock get affected is illustrated.

Source – The Journal

A. Texas flood (1998)

In October 1998 surge in San Marcos, Guadalupe, San Antonio, and Colorado River bowls, enormous loss of domesticated animals occurred. The late night precipitation made it difficult for agriculturists and farmers to save animals they possessed. Due to huge flooding, more than 23,000 cattle drowned or were lost along with pigs, sheeps and horses (TAHC measurements, 1998 taken from Ellis, 2001). Local disaster management authorities were to deal with dead cows on lying on trees, roadside, inhabitant’s patios and garages. Crisis management officials from government bodies entrusted Texas Animal Health Commission (TAHC) to discard the animal carcass.

Animal carcass were buried (where possible) or burnt in air curtain incinerators alongside other waste materials. The relentless tidy up process for animal carcass occurred over a two-week time frame in 20 districts declared as disaster affected zone (Wilson, TAHC report, 1998, and Ronsonette, 2001, taken from Ellis, 2001). Within 7-10 days of the disaster, depending on the outside air temperatures, animal carcass turn out to be excessively decomposed, making it impossible to deal with them with equipments, for example, front end loaders (TAHC Wilson and Allen interviews, 1998). Further, the carcasses were found in swamps did not allow the usage of such heavy equipments. The carcasses were now excessively fragile making it very difficult to even deal with.

Due to flooding, it was difficult to find appropriate sites where carcasses could be burnt, post retrieval. The authorities faced a massive task in the process of corpse cleanup. The lack of guidelines and pre-existing coordination between TAHC and crisis management officials made the situation worse.

B. Taiwan Foot and Mouth Disease (1997)

FMD is an exceedingly infectious viral disease of cows, pigs, sheep, goats, and all types of deer. Multiple nations have an arrangement of quick butcher of all affected and in-contact creatures, with serious limitations on the movement of creatures (in any condition) to forestall disease spread. After butchering, the corpses must be discarded in a bio-secure way, and all structures and gear completely sterilized (AUSVET, 1996, p.21). FMD is by and large viewed as a standout amongst the most infectious diseases, as the virus can spread in the wind, on individuals’ clothes, equipment, and in processes meats, and contact with infected animals (Merck, 1994, 457-8)

The methods for carcass transfer included burying, rendering, and cremation. Up to 200,000 swines per day were annihilated and discarded at the peak of the operations. Military recruits were brought in to complete the culling. During the operation, a significant number of the armed forces revealed mental trouble and tension requiring medical leave.

The key issues emerging from the case studies pertaining to animal remains management are:

Absence of prior exchange and pre disaster involvement of state disaster management authorities, animal welfare and veterinary groups to designate responsibilities with respect to carcass management, including identification of a lead organization.

Poorly arranged or non-existent corpse disposal plans and guidelines, including site selection for both carcass gathering and burial/incineration sites.

Lack of emergency management officials with adequate knowledge of animal health Short window of time to clean and dispose the animal remains

Pollution of drinking water sources, fly control, smell control from exorbitant hydrogen sulfide (H2S), possible zoonotic (creature to human) disease introduction, like

Leptospirosis, Salmonellosis, or Tetanus

The huge quantity of dead animals that could be present post events like floods or epidemics

Public health concerns in case of death from infectious diseases

High amount of body fluids from animal carcass, which might contaminate water sources. Environmental and hydrological concerns complicating the disposal process

Stress felt by emergency workers in handling the dead animals.

To deal with the issues, legislative and regulatory frameworks have been formulated for the disposal of animal carcasses. A command and control centre would be in charge of the recovery, retrieval, identification and safe disposal. Response would include the retrieval and identification of the animal carcasses. A specialised team would coordinate the efforts and identify through photographs for insurance. It is generally organized by the governmental bodies in co ordination with animal welfare associations or veterinary department.

Animal carcass is disposed off through multiple methods, but primarily three methods are in practice.

Burial – Preferred mode of animal carcass disposal in case of infectious diseases. It is generally cheap, environmentally cleaner, quick and easy to organize. Two methods are there –   Open pit disposal and closed pit disposal with the later more preferred as it prevents scavenger intrusion and assists in absorption of smell and fluids coming out of carcass.

Incineration – Incineration, if carried out properly can produce solid waste by product which is essentially free of pathogens. Incineration is easy for animals like hogs which have high fat content but not preferred for birds with low fat content and feathers that are hard to burn. Three methods are used in incineration, viz. open-air burning, biological incineration, and controlled burning. Open-air burning is most commonly used but it has serious environmental concerns. Biological incineration is suitable for low quantity carcass burning. Controlled burning through air curtain incinerators are preferred as they are portable, environmentally friendly and can burn large quantities in short time, but they are expensive and not available everywhere.

Compositing – Composting is defined as the controlled decomposition of organic materials. (Ellis, 2001) Compost is considered to be one of the more environmentally friendly forms of carcass disposal, because it is in effect a form of recycling. Its initial cost is minimal and the end product can be utilised as fertilizer or soil additive. But its limitation is the long process and it required monitoring.

The other processes are rendering, alkaline hydrolysis, fermentation, deposit in ocean, mounding etc.

The method of carcass disposal shall depend on the type of animal and the cause of death. Logistical considerations should also be taken care of. The final concerns before choosing the disposal site or type of disposal depends on the infectious agents involved, nature and amount of disposable materials, hydrology/typology considerations, fuel availability, site accessibility and discretion of authorities.

The National Disaster Management Plan, 2016 calls for detailed strategies for close coordination of state government with local agencies for managing the removal/ disposal of carcass of animals from the affected areas.

Summary

The above module presents dead body and animal carcass management and its significance.

The key points to note are:

Identification and dignified handling of dead bodies should be ensured post disasters.

Search, recovery, transportation, storing, identification and disposal of the dead bodies is essential post disasters.

Proper management of dead bodies is essential for psychological well being of disaster survivors and rescue workers.

Animal carcass management is another key concern post disasters and is important for medico legal concerns.