33 Coastal Zone Management

Dr. Anjana Mathur Jagmohan

Pre-requisites

Costal Processes and Landforms

Objectives

To comprehend the meaning, objectives, principles, elements, and processes involved in Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Keywords

ICZM, Agenda 21, Sustainability, Eutrophication

Learning Objectives

To comprehend the meaning, objectives, principles, elements, and processes involved in Integrated Coastal Zone Management.

Defining the Concept of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM):

European Commission states that ICZM is dynamic, multidisciplinary and iterative process to promote sustainable management of coastal zones. It covers the full cycle of information collection, planning (in its broadest sense), decision making, management and monitoring of implementation. ICZM uses the informed participation and cooperation of all stakeholders to assess the societal goals in a given coastal area, and to take actions towards meeting these objectives.

ICZM seeks, over the long-term, to balance environmental, economic, social, cultural and recreational objectives, all within the limits set by natural dynamics. ‘Integrated’ in ICZM refers to the integration of objectives and also to the integration of the many instruments needed to meet these objectives. It means integration of all relevant policy areas, sectors, and levels of administration. It means integration of the terrestrial and marine components of the target territory, in both time and space.

In its most general sense, the phrase “Coastal Zone management” could signify the public interest in managing anything and everything that goes on in the coastal zone, however, that area may be defined. In these terms, coastal zone management overlaps and includes everything that all governments already do or will do in the area. Heikoff (1980)

CAMPNET (1989) defined ICZM as “a dynamic process in which a coordinated strategy is developed and implemented for the allocation of environmental, socio-cultural and institutional resources to achieve

The importance of the Coastal Zone and the need for management

The dynamic processes that occur within the coastal zones produce varied and industrious ecosystems which have been of great significance for human populations. Coastal margins are associated with only 8 Per cent of the worlds surface area but provide 25 per cent of global productivity. Approximately 70% of the world’s population inhabit the regions within a day’s walk of the coast. Two-thirds of the world’s cities occur on the coasts.

The factors which push the need for ICZM (from Chua and White, 1988):

High rates of population growth;

Poverty exacerbated by dwindling resources, degraded fisheries habitats and lack of alternative livelihoods;

Large-scale, quick-profit, commercial enterprises which degrade resources and conflict with interests of the local people;

Lack of awareness about management for resource sustainability among local people and policy-makers;

Lack of understanding of the economic contribution of coastal resources to society;

Lack of serious government follow-up in support and enforcement of conservation programs. the conservation and sustainable multiple use of coastal zone.

Figure 1.1 The Coastal Area and Activities that Cause Resource Use Conflicts. Source: Joliffe and Patman (1985)

Land-Sea Interactions

A major value of integrated coastal zone management is that it addresses the land and the sea simultaneously. Linkages between “dryside” (land) and “wetside” (sea) of the coast, then, prevent sustainable development of coastal/marine resources without coordinated management.

It is basic to coastal management to recognize how strongly activities on land affect the condition of the sea. The sea is impacted by distant events that occur far inland – river discharges, banana plantations, deforestation – all may affect coastal ecosystems.

Conversely, the sea strongly affects the land and intertidal areas; for example, pollution from tanker bilges washings or property destruction from cyclonic storm flooding and wave action. The countering “natural defences” of the coastline – beaches, mangroves and coral reefs – can be extremely important for protecting shorelines and coastal villages against storm waves and shore erosion.

Objectives of the ICZM Programme

The overall goal of the ICZM program is to

Ensure optimum sustainable use of coastal natural resource
perpetual maintenance of high levels of biodiversity
real conservation of critical habitats.

Substantial objectives of ICZM include a. supporting fisheries b. protecting the community from storm ravages c. attracting tourists d. promoting public health e. maintaining yields from mangrove forests f. preserving coral reefs.

A major objective of ICZM is to coordinate the initiatives of the various coastal economic sectors (e.g., shipping, agriculture, fisheries) toward long-term optimal socio- economic outcomes, including resolution of conflicts between sectors and arranging beneficial trade-offs.

Delimiting the Boundaries of the Coastal Zone

According to Mc Creary and Sorensen (1990) “ Coastal Zone is the interface or transition zone and especially that part of the land affected by its proximity to the ocean and that part of the ocean which is affected by its proximity to the land.”

Cecin-Sain and Knecht have identified five main zones within the coastal zone:

Inland areas which affect the oceans mainly via rivers and non-point sources of pollution
Coastal lands- wetlands, marshes and the like – where human activity is concentrated and directly affects the adjacent waters.
Coastal waters –generally estuaries, lagoons, and shallow waters – where the effect of land based activities are dominant.
Offshore waters, mainly out to the edge of national jurisdiction
High seas, beyond the limit of national jurisdiction

The boundaries of the coastal zone depend on political, administrative, legal, ecological and pragmatic considerations. A narrow coastal zone could be appropriate if its purpose were to manage only the shoreline and intertidal areas. If watershed issues are of concern, then an inland extension is necessary. Likewise, if the issues extend far seaward, then the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) might be included. In the case of small island countries, the whole country might be defined as coastal zone.

The Development Of The Concept Of ICZM

This concept was born in 1992 during the Earth Summit of Rio de Janeiro. The specifics regarding ICZM is set out in the proceedings of the summit within Agenda 21, Chapter 17.

At present almost all the signatory countries have their own ICZM programmes each designed according to their own needs, location and state of development. Countries of the Mediterranean, the European Union, Iran, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, many African nations and India have own departments of Coastal Zone Management.

In India, Integrated Coastal Zone Management Programme is being implemented in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu. India has also borrowed heavily from the Ramsar Convention, of which India is a signatory, to design its Coastal Development Programme.

The concept of sustainability

The concept behind the idea of ICZM is sustainability. For ICZM to succeed, it must be sustainable. Sustainable exploitation implies the wise use and careful management (conservation) of individual species and communities, together with the habitats and ecosystems on which they depend, so that their current or potential usefulness to people is not impaired.

PRINCIPLES AND PREMISES

ICZM is based upon fundamental premises and principles all of which have to be followed earnestly.

Principle 1: The coastal area is a unique resource system which requires special management and planning approaches

Principle 2: Water is the major integrating force in coastal resource systems

Principle 3: It is essential that land and sea uses be planned and managed in combination

.Principle 4: The edge of the sea is the focal point of coastal management programmes

Principle 5: Coastal management boundaries should be issue-based and adaptive

Principle 6: A major emphasis of coastal resources management is to conserve common property resources

Principle 7: Prevention of damage from natural hazards and conservation of natural resources should be combined in ICZM programmes

Principle 8: All levels of government within a country must be involved in coastal management and planning

Principle 9: The nature-synchronous approach to development is especially appropriate for the coast

Principle 10: Special forms of economic and social benefit evaluation and public participation are used in coastal management programmes

Principle 11: Conservation for sustainable use is a major goal of coastal resources management

Principle 12: Multiple-use management is appropriate for most coastal resource systems

Principle 13. Multiple-sector involvement is essential to sustainable use of coastal resources

Principle 14; Traditional resource management should be respected

Principle 15: The environmental impact assessment approach is essential to effective coastal management

Fundamental Elements of Coastal Zone Management

1.Creation of Protected Areas

Coastal and marine nature reserves form a complementary and integral part of Coastal Zone Management. These reserves can be resource reserves, natural areas, and/or national parks.

Protected areas harmonize with the objectives of ICZM by conserving nursery areas for fisheries production, enhancing tourism revenues and recreational benefits, preserving wilderness values, promoting baseline scientific and management studies, and so forth. At the same time, protected areas gain from the ICZM programme important protection from external impacts.

2. Protection of Critical Habitat Resources

Mangrove, Wetlands and other Intertidal Systems

Seagrass Systems

Coral Reef Systems

Sandy Beach Systems

Salt marshes and open tide flats.

Estuaries and Lagoons

Impact of developmental activities on critical ecosystems of the coastal zone

DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES AFFECTING IMPORTANT COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Significant adverse effects likely

Adverse effects possible

3. Addressing Coastal Resource Issues

Loss of mangrove forests due to rate of exploitation above that which would sustain the resource.

2. Coral reef destruction leading to reduced yield of fish species associated with reefs; reduced tourism attraction; and loss of rare ecosystems due to: dynamiting to harvest fish from the reef,

-harvesting of coral for construction material or, in the case of exotic coral species, for jewellery or souvenirs, -siltation and smothering of coral from erosion associated with upstream deforestation, and -death of coral from deleterious effluents associated with mining or oil spills.

3. Congestion and intensive use of coastal resources such as water, species, and fisheries, due to high population density and continuing growth, expansion of tourism industry, and growth of commercial and industrial activity.

4. Inadequate institutional structures to address coastal resource problems and to administer planning, management, regulation, and enforcement where it is needed.

5. Depletion of wildlife species such as turtles, crocodiles, deer, waterfowl and manatees.

6. Pollution of coastal waters which adversely affects fisheries yield and tourism revenues due to: – industrial wastes,

-sewage,

-agricultural pesticide runoff,

-oil spills,

-bilge discharges, and

-toxic contamination of fish/shellfish.

7. Beach and coastline erosion caused by removal of coastal mangrove forests; construction of coastal installations which alter current and wave action patterns; or mining of beaches for sand.

8. Swampland filling that reduces fish spawning and “nursery” habitat and reduces fisheries yields.

9. Upland deforestation leading to erosion and sedimentation.

10. Overfishing leading to reduced fisheries yield and in some cases species extinction.

11. Salt water intrusion leading to loss of coastal agricultural lands and potable water supplies.

12. Regulating tourism practices and recreation considering the carrying capacity of the place, introducing visitor management methods and seeking to maximize the total benefits to development, while preserving the natural environment and improving the local cultural milieu upon which it depends.

4. National Security

Extensive security interests exist in the coastal zone and coastal seas because they are at the frontier, the border zone, where invasion or other negative activities (smuggling) might occur. Naval ports and harbours, coastal airfields, and special bases of all kinds are sited in the coastal zone, usually with a high priority and intense security. However, with the correct approach, the military can be expected to cooperate in coastal zone conservation so long as it is not in conflict with national security needs. Therefore, the defence establishment should be included as a party to any ICZM programme.

5. Policy Formulation

Essential points of ICZM programme Policy formulation are:

a. No piecemeal approaches to coastal development rather a balance between a variety of compatible uses to maximise economic and social benefits along with conservation and development.

b. In certain resource reserves, critical habitats, and other specially designated areas might be set aside for restricted use.

c. Environmental management through special forms of management of development and of resources

d. ICZM planning may result in shifts in general economic policy of a country which might be reflected through:

i. optimizing the long term economic benefits to society from the marine area under national jurisdiction;

ii. decrease economic dependence on advanced countries;

iii. decrease the influence of private developers in controlling the pace of economic growth

iv. clarify for potential investors the intentions and objectives of the government;

v. guide development and use of the country’s marine area in a rational and efficient manner for highest and most equitable economic benefit to the people.

The Process Of Integrated Coastal Zone Management Action Plan

The various steps in drawing an action plan for coastal zone management are discussed in the diagram below.

If implemented earnestly, the programme will need to collaborate and coordinate with the different stakeholders who are involved in coastal development

Figure 1. ICZM Process: Strategy Planning (Steps 1–6) and Programme Planning (Steps 7–11)

Source: Clark (1991c)

Typical Economic Sectors of Coastal Countries to be integrated in ICZM

1. Coastal zone or ocean specific sectors involved directly

a. Navy and other national defense operations (e.g., testing, coastguard, customs

b. Port and harbour development (including shipping channels)

c. Shipping and navigation

d. Recreational boating and harbours

e. Commercial and Recreational fishing

f. Mariculture

g. Tourism

h. marine and coastal research

i. Shoreline erosion control

2. Sectors rarely considered coastal zone specific but have direct impacts

a. Agriculture – Mariculture

b. Forestry

c. Fish and wildlife management

d. Parks and recreation

e. Education

f. Water pollution control

g. Public health – mosquito control and food

h. Housing

i. Water supply

j. Transportation

Figure.2. Forces at work on coastal resources include a variety of economic sectors and political powers, each with a stake in levels of exploitation. Creation of management measures to control exploitation and rehabilitation of coastal resources are the role of ICZM programmes. Source: Chua (1986)

It is unlikely that the sectors themselves would cooperate with each other to reduce misuse of coastal resources in the absence of government intervention. Therefore, the ICZM programme should be organized so as to encourage and guide intersectoral cooperation and activity coordination in order to achieve the goal of an integrated, multi-sectoral plan.

The following are some principal types of information needed for ICZM:

1. Physical environment data: terrain data (including history), erosional processes, storm surge, winds, tides, air-sea interaction, sediment transport, geological setting, subsidence, sediment supply, meteorological data, climate.

2. Biological environment: Primary and secondary production, major habitats and ecosystems distribution and extent of living marine resources, presence of rare, threatened or endangered species, ecological relationships that determine productivity, indicator species.

3. Sociological information: sociocultural information;resource dependency; historical resource use patterns including methods; factors determining historic use patterns; identify current use patterns; identify whether current use patterns are sustainable; demographic information; land and sea tenure.

4. Economics: Resources and resource use patterns should be given economic values. Qualitative values – resources and resource-use patterns that cannot be economically valued have to be considered. Specific economic pursuits like fisheries, tourism, ports, energy, settlements, transportation, aquaculture, mining, oil/gas, waste treatment and disposal, settlements, cities, traditional practices.

5. Issues: to identify the stakeholder groups involved in the use and management of coastal resources and potential conflicts among them.

6.Institutional mechanisms (national, state, and local): ministries, departments with division of responsibility, organization and hierarchy; legislation on zoning, pollution, resource, utilization; interagency councils; advisory panels; standing agreements with private parties; permitting and other administrative processes to carry out legislation.

Assessment of the present status of coastal zones is required urgently, including diagnostics on eutrophication, occurrence of red tides, ciguatera, coliforms at beaches, nitrification and salinization of groundwater, fish abundance, habitat degradation levels, identification of local and upstream impacting activities (agriculture and others), wetland obliteration, etc.

Using the data collected and identifying the various stakeholders as well as agencies involved, a sustainable integrated coastal zone management plan can be drawn and implemented.

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