22 Aeolian Land Features

Dr.N. Diwedi( Retd)

epgp books

 

 

 

 

1. Aeolian land features – Aeolian environment and processes

 

1.1. Aeolian Environment

 

1.2. Processes of wind action

 

2. Types of aeolian land features

 

2.1 Aeolian erosional land features

 

2.1.1 Lag deposit

 

2.1.2 Deflation hollow

 

2.1.3 Yardang and Zuegen

 

2.1.4 Ventifacts

 

2.2 Aeolian depositional land features

 

2.2.1 Sand dunes

 

2.2.2 Sand ripples

 

2.2.3 Sand ridges

 

3.  Desertification – Definition, problem and prevention

 

Summary

 1. Aeolian land features – Aeolian environment and processes 1.1. Aeolian Environment

 

All land features formed by wind are also called ‘Aeolian features’ after the name of the Greek God of wind ‘Aeolus’. Wind, although present everywhere, is a powerful agent of landform creation only in regions that are dry and mostly free of vegetation cover.

 

Wind erodes, transports and deposits smaller particles like sand but may move even larger particles under special conditions. These processes lead to a variety of features. The scale of features ranges from very small to a vast expanse of several thousand square kilometers. The main features are hollows and grooves on rocky surface and mounds of sand. They have different shapes and sizes and are named and classified as such.

 

Arid, semi-arid and sub-humid climatic regions are best suited for aeolian features (Fig.1). These drier parts occupy central and western regions of the continents that are on the leeward side of easterly rain bearing winds coming from the oceans.

Fig. 1.

Distribution of aeolian environments in the world

 

1.2. Processes of wind action

 

The three main processes that play vital role in development of aeolian landforms are:

  1. Erosion by wind,
  2. Transportation by wind, and
  3. Deposition by wind.
  4. Erosion by wind – Wind erosion follows two different processes: a) Abrasion and b) Deflation.

     a. Abrasion – When strong winds blow and carry hard sand particles with them they attack rocky surfaces in their path of flow. This is known as ‘sandblasting’. According to Bagnold, wind can lift sand particles only up to a height of 45 centimetres or 2 metres at the maximum (Thornbury 1958 p. 300). As such, abrasion by sandblast is limited to a zone close to the surface. Blackwelder has classified three different impacts of abrasion – i) polishing and pitting, ii) grooving and iii) shaping and cutting smooth surface on the windward side of the rock, also called faceting.

 

b. Deflation – The process of lifting dry and loose particles and carrying them away is called deflation. Both the size of the particles and wind velocity play an important role in deflation. According to Richard Huggett, particles with 100 micrometre diameter are most suited for deflation. Particles larger than this cannot be lifted and carried unless the wind is especially strong. Deflation transports sand only to a limited distance. On the other hand, fine particles show a tendency to stick to each other and are not easily carried away by wind deflation. But once the finer particles are picked up they can be lifted up vertically higher up, kept afloat and transported to great distances. The process of deflation leaves hollowed features in its wake. Dust storms are another evidence of wind deflation (Fig. 2).

 

Fig.2 Sand storm

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sandstorm_in_Al_Asad,_Iraq.jpg)

 

2. Transportation by wind – Once loose particles are picked up by wind they are transported away by four different processes: a) creep, b) suspension, c) saltation and d) reptation. Each has a different role in landform creation.

 

a) Creep – This mode of transportation involves movement of particles along the surface. Particles are pushed ahead as they roll and slip across the surface. This process influences larger grain size like sand and even pebbles, that cannot be lifted but can be pushed by strong winds (Fig. 3).

 

Fig.3.

 

b) Suspension – Smaller particles with a diameter of less than 100 micrometres are light in weight and can be lifted above the ground by wind eddies. Once these start floating they keep moving at a height until the force of wind totally dies out. Suspension may carry dust particles thousands of kilometres away from their point of origin (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

Satellite image of dust lifted from Africa and carried to South America.

(Source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=81864)

 

c) Saltation – Large grains of sand and gravel moves ahead in intermittent They are lifted and dropped repeatedly by gusts of wind. Maximum height for saltation is 2 metres. As they land and hit the ground they push other particles ahead. According to W. B. Sparks—in saltation “the impact derived from saltation is able to move grains six times the size of those forming the saltation.”(Sparks 1983 p. 325). As a result, large particles are pushed by this process which cannot be moved otherwise by wind (Fig. 5).

 

Reptation – This process of wind transportation is closely related to saltation. As particles fall on the ground after jumping up, they create a splash and smaller particles are displaced in different directions.

 

Fig.5.

 

3. Deposition by wind – When the velocity of wind is reduced, it loses its transporting capacity and drops the suspended fine particles carried by it, or stops creep and saltation started by it. The result of this inaction is deposition. On the basis of particle size there are two categories – fine particle deposition takes place far away from point of origin, while sand is deposited closer to the source region. Deposition may take place within the aeolian environments mentioned above or may be outside such areas. Four such areas have been mentioned by W. D. Thornbury—shore line, semi-arid river banks, extensive sandstone weathering areas and glacial out-wash zone. The deposited material forms various types of land features. Dunes of various types are the most conspicuous of all.

 

2. Types of aeolian land features

 

The above mentioned processes are responsible for creating a variety of typical land forms, each indicative of the process responsible for its formation. On the basis of the two major actions of wind, aeolian landforms are classified into two broad categories — erosional and depositional aeolian features.

 

2.1 Eolian erosional land features

Wind erodes in two ways, one: it picks up lose particles and removes them to create depressions. Secondly, wind attacks rocks with sand particles and destroys weak rock beds. The following are the features formed by these actions.

 

2.1.1 Lag deposit

 

While blowing over a surface, wind removes all unconsolidated fine particles. Those with less than 100 micrometres diameter are suspended and are taken to long distances. Those particles that are of 100 micrometres diameter, like sand, are removed gradually to short distances. The larger ones are left at their place of origin and keep rolling and shifting their place till they are tightly packed by this random jostling. These surfaces are called ‘lag deposits’, because the surface is made of particles that could not keep pace with the rest of smaller ones moving out and ‘lagged behind’. They are also known as ‘desert pavement’ as the grains are fitted tightly, just like any man-made tiled pavement surface. The top of these desert pavements are polished by wind abrasion and have a thin shiny layer of oxides of iron and manganese, called desert varnish. These lag deposits have different names, e.g., desert armour in North America, serir and hammada in the Arab world and gibber in Australia (Richard Huggett 2011p. 319). (Fig.6).

 

 

 

 

Fig.6.

Desert pavement, with desert varnish on the pebbles. Gibber – Central Australia.

(Source: By Mark Marathon https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_pavement#/media/File:Desert_pavement_2.jpg)

 

2.1.2 Deflation hollow

 

As the name suggests, these are low-lying surfaces which have been cleared of all loose particles and converted into hollows. The size of these depressions may range from a few metres in diameters and depth, to several kilometers. The dimension, especially the depth, is controlled by the underground water table. As deepening reaches humid layers close to the water table, wind fails to move the moist particles and no further hollowing is allowed. These are also known as blowouts.

 

Some of the examples of these deflation hollows are:

 

P’ang Kiang Hollows – Several hollows are found in Mongolia, that are 8 kilometres wide and 60 to 120 metres deep. These have been described by C. P. Berkey and F. K. Morris as a work of wind deflation (Thornbury 302).

 

Laramie Basin in Wyoming which is 14.5 kilometres long, 4.8 kilometres wide and about 46 metres deep.

 

Quattara Depression in North Egypt, which has its deepest part 134 metres below the sea level.

 

The process involved in their formation essentially shows alternation of wet and dry periods. During the wet period, moisture helps in destruction of rocks due to agents of weathering. Unconsolidated rock grains created during this period are later transported by wind during the dry phase of the cycle. Repetition of the two phases gradually enlarges the depression (Fig.7).

 

 

 

Fig.7.

(Source: Self)

     Robotic rover Curiosity has been on the planet Mars since August 6, 2012. On Dec. 5, 2015, it captured a view of the undisturbed surface of a Martian sand dune called “High Dune”. It shows lag deposit of coarse grains, remaining on the surface after wind removal of smaller particles. The image covers an area 3.6 by 2.7 centimeters.

 

(Source: http://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/jpl/pia20171/surface-close-up-of-a- martian-sand-dune)

 

2.1.3 Yardang and Zuegen

 

Yardangs are elongated grooves, first described by Hedin in Turkestan (Thornbury p.299). Eliot Blackwelder used the term ‘Yardang’ for these grooves in 1934. These are parallel ridges separated by parallel ‘u’-shaped grooves, both developed in the direction of dominating wind flow in the region. They are called Mega-yardang when they are large in scale. In central Sahara and Egypt yardangs are 100 metres long and 1000 metres wide (Richard Huggett p.123). It is believed that formation of yardangs is initiated by some conditions that favour differential wind erosion. Some believe that initial depressions are made by the erosive action of water, and are later enlarged by wind deflation and abrasion. Arthur Bloom has given the example of such narrow parallel gullies in the cold desert of the central Andes. Here the gullies are cut along the joints that run parallel to the strong winds (Bloom 2003 291-92). Such initial grooving is mostly held responsible for evolution of yardangs everywhere. The feature itself is considered ‘dynamic’, that is, yardangs are both destroyed and made continuously.

 

Zuegen (singular Zuege) – These are similar to yardang, except they are smaller in scale and grooving is related to softer material alternated with more resistant rock beds.

 

2.1.4 Ventifacts

 

Ventifacts are rock pieces with smooth, sand-blasted facets pointing to the direction of dominant wind flow. Sometimes there may be several such facets developed on a rock, indicating varying wind direction. All facets in this type of case intersect along sharp and angular edges. If the rock piece has a pyramidal three-faceted shape it is called dreikanter (Fig.8).

 

Fig.8.

(Source:                                                                         By                                                                                           Wilson44691.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventifact#/media/File:VentifactMojaveDesert031511.jpg. and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreikanter#/media/File:Dreikanter_from_the_Wind_River_Basin,_Wyomi ng,_USA._Photo_by_AJ_Wakefield,_2012.jpg)

  Besides the above main landforms other features that result from near-surface abrasion by sand-laden winds are mesa, butte and mushroom rocks. These are formed when the base of a rock projection is eroded while the top is untouched by wind action, or is protected by some harder rock. Weak rock beds are eroded while harder beds stand out (Fig.9).

 

Fig.9

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa#/media/File:IslandInTheSky.JPG. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte#/media/File:Monument_Valley,_late_afternoon.jpg. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_rock#/media/File:Timna_5.JPG)

 

2.2 Aeolian depositional land features

 

All particles transported by wind are ultimately dropped under two conditions – one, if the velocity of wind drops; or two, if the wind meets an obstacle in its path. Different circumstances lead to formation of different landforms. Most important of these are sand dunes. Besides these sand ripples and sand ridges cover vast areas. Bagnold has classified all depositional features into two broad classes on the basis of scale (Fig. 10).

 

Fig.10.

(Source: Self based on Thornbury p.306)

2.2.1 Sand dunes

 

Sand dunes are defined as hills and mounds of sand. They have a large variety and are classified on different bases. Bagnold defines dunes as “mobile heap of sand whose existence is independent of either ground form or fixed wind obstruction”. His classification mentioned only two types – barchans (transverse dune) and seif (longitudinal dune).

 

Dune formation – All dunes have more or less similar morphology and require similar ideal conditions. When wind meets an obstacle, it slows down and leaves some of the transported sand on the windward side of the obstacle. Gradually this deposition adds height to the evolving dune. When the crest of the deposit gains the maximum height possible under the available supply of sand and wind velocity, and the front becomes too steep, particles begin to slip forward and the leeward slip-face slope slumps (Fig.11). At this stage two simultaneous processes shape the dune. One, on the windward side sand particles arrive and move up the slope by creeping action; two, the leeward side keeps slumping and wind eddies remove lose particles from the dune. It is to be noted here that sand particles can achieve stability only on a surface with a slope of 34 degrees or less. As soon as the slope exceeds this critical point sand becomes unstable and shows a tendency to roll down. This critical angle is called the ‘angle of repose’ for sand, and plays an important role in all aeolian features. The processes active on windward and leeward sides continue, and gradually the dunes move towards the slip-face side. The balance between incoming sand on the windward side and the sand removed by eddies from the slip face, maintains the size of the dune as it moves ahead. Strong winds may add bulk to the dune, while gentle winds only rearrange its mass.

 

Fig. 11.

(Source: Self, based on Bagnold)

 

Barchan – Barchans are crescent shaped dunes. They are either single or may form groups. They migrate in the downwind direction, but maintain their shape as they move. They have the following distinct characters (Fig.12):

 

Slip-face, it is a downwind steep slope, across which sand particles roll down when steepness is more than 34 degrees.

 

Gently sloping windward slope, that receives fresh amount of sand. Sand here is compacted and not loose.

 

A sharp lip marking the meeting line of the two slopes.

 

Two limbs or horns gradually tapering and pointing downwind. They develop on rocky or lag deposit surfaces.

 

Their height ranges from 0.5 to 100 metres. Their width ranges from 30 to 300 metres. They form under unidirectional winds.

 

They can move at a rate of 40 metres per year.

 

When several barchans join their horns they form transverse dunes.

 

Fig.12.

(Source: modified from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barchan#/media/File:Barchan.jpg)

 

‘

Fig.13.

(Source:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thorn_Tree_Sossusvlei_Namib_Desert_Namibia_Luc a_Galuzzi_2004.JPG)

 

Fig.14.

Isolated barchans on the Mars

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune#/media/File:Barchan_in_Noachis.jpg)

   Seif – Seif is a linear dune with its axis aligned parallel to the prevailing strong winds. Its crest runs along its length and is marked by a sharp edge, hence it is also called sword dune.

 

There are several theories to explain it. One theory believes that seif is a result of bi-directional wind pattern. “The longitudinal or seif dune occurs when the wind regime is such that the strong winds blow from a quarter other than that of the general drift of sand caused by the more persistent gentle winds” – Bagnold.

 

Fig. 15

(Source: Self, based on Bagnold)

 

Seif is formed when gentle winds collect sand to form a normal, crescent-shaped dune, which is intermittently disturbed by strong winds, and the shape and mass of initial dune is modified. The two winds take turns to develop a seif in the following stages (Fig. 15):

 

1.  Steady gentle wind forms a dune with two horns.

 

2.  When the seasonal strong wind approaches it adds a lot of new sand to the windward limb b and disturbs the balanced growth of the two horns.

 

3.  Again, during the gentle-wind phase, development and arrangement of all sand is aligned parallel to the wind flow. Thus b’ is created.

 

4.  Alternatively, the seasonal wind again works on the windward side of the dune and adds more supply to b’’ and pushes it to the lee of its flow.

 

   5.  The two winds work on the seif turn by turn, but the axis of the dune is controlled and kept parallel to its flow by the gentle wind, giving it a linear shape.

 

6.  Slip face on a seif is always to the lee of the prevailing wind, therefore it changes according to the changes in the wind direction. In general, the slip face runs on the two sides of the crest parallel to the axis of the dune

 

Seif dunes have several summits; their number depends on the height of the seif. In lower seifs summits may be as close as 20 metres, while on higher seifs summits may be 500 metres apart. These dunes are capable of maintaining their straight alignment to winds for several kilometres. They can run across low cliffs or moderate depressions without losing their straightness.

 

Southern Iran has examples of the highest seif dunes. Here, from base to crest they reach a maximum height of 210 metres. Their width usually is six times their height.

 

There are other explanations for linear dunes that develop parallel to the wind direction. According to one theory if the surface has some pre-existing linear features, like bands of raised resistant rocks or hills, then sand deposition is controlled by them to give shape to linear dunes. In such cases, the wind sweeps sand from the lower areas and move all sand particles towards the raised features. This movement of wind is a result of hot air currents that tend to move from the central lower zone to the bordering higher features and rise up along them. The winds form a circular cell between the hills and maintain the mass and shape of the linear dunes (Fig. 16).

 

Fig.16

Linear dunes-Egypt

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune#/media/File:ISS-31_Linear_dunes_in_the_Great_Sand_Sea_in_southwest_Egypt.jpg)

 

Other important types of dunes are:

 

Parabolic dunes – These are typical of moist regions like the sea shore. In these dunes, the horns of the crescent are fixed, because shallow sand in horns allows vegetation growth, which stabilizes the sand. The higher, dry, central part of the dune keeps moving forward in the downwind direction. The shape of parabolic dune looks like an inversion of barchans, as its horns point towards the windward direction (Fig.17).

Fig.17.

(Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Parabolic_dune.jpg)

 

Star dune – These dunes are formed in multi-directional wind regions. They have several limbs joined along a crest. Star dunes are fixed and have been at one site for several years (Fig. 18).

Fig.18

Star Dune

(Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune#/media/File:Star-dune.jpg)

2.2.2 Sand ripples

 

Ripples are small-scale aeolian features. They are 1 to 30 centimetres high and a few centimetres to some metres apart. The develop perpendicular to the wind direction. Their shape changes very quickly (Fig.19).

 

Fig. 19

Ripples

(Source:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripple_marks#/media/File:1969_Afghanistan_%28Sistan%29_win d_ripples.tiff)

Dec. 11, 2015

 

The rippled surface of the first Martian sand dune ever studied up close fills this view of “High Dune” from the Mast Camera (Mastcam) on NASA’s Curiosity rover. This site is part of the “Bagnold Dunes”. The dunes are active, migrating up to about one yard or meter per year.

 

Source:http://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/jpl/pia20168/high-dune-is-first-martian-dune-studied-up-close)

 

 

2.2.3 Sand ridges

 

Ridges are long, undulating aeolian features parallel to the wind direction. The main process responsible for their formation is saltation. In the beginning there are windward and slip-face activities, just like in the formation of sand dunes. Particles on the leeward side are protected from impact of the wind. The depression continually gets deeper as particles are removed from here rapidly. Due to saltation, large grains are pushed up along the windward slope to the crest of feature. The crest receives grains faster than it loses them. On the other hand, depressions lose grains faster than they receive, and hence get hollowed (Fig.20).

 

Fig.20.

Sand ridge

(Source: Self, based on Bagnold)

 

The above list of features includes only the most common, spectacular and widely discussed ones. There are other important aeolian land forms besides these, which should be mentioned here.

 

Whalebacks, Dunefields and Sand Sea – in the Sahara desert vast sandy areas are called ergs. These areas that have a level surface made of coarse grains are called ‘plinth’ by Bagnold. These are remnants of old dunes and seifs that have migrated from here. Whalebacks are “Coarse-grained residues or platforms built up and left behind by the passage of a long-continued succession of seif dunes along the same path” – Bagnold

 

Chains of transverse and seif dunes, barchans and other small scale features develop on these whalebacks to make dunefields. In the Western Egypt, the sand sea extends for 600 kilometres (Fig.21).

Fig.21.

Dunefield

(Source:http://www.handsontheland.org/grsa/resources/images/photos/dune_field_cristos01.jpg)

 

 

Sand Shadow – Formation of this feature dependents on the presence of an obstacle in the path of the wind. The velocity of wind dips in the lee of such an obstacle, while the flow circumventing the obstacle maintains its force. As a result, weak flow fails to remove any sand particle that arrives in the leeward side of the obstacle; this allows sand to collect and form a depositional feature called Sand Shadow of the obstacle. It is formed close to the obstacle in its shelter (Fig.22).

Fig.22

(Source: Self, based on Bagnold)

 

Sand Drift – This feature is related to presence of gaps in landforms that allow wind to blow as a channelized strong stream. In such cases, the rest of the landform obstructs wind and transportation of sand while the gap allows unobstructed flow. All sand accumulating against such obstacles is directed to the gap and moves forward through it. Close to the gap there is no deposition because here the force of channelized wind is strong and transports its entire load. As wind moves farther from the gap and loses its force, it drops the sand it is carrying. Right in the line of the gap a mound builds up. Later this mound forces the wind to slow down and deposit more sand here.

Fig.23.

Sand Drift

(Source: Self, based on Bagnold)

Loess

 

Loess is very fine soil that wind has transported and deposited in thick layers far away from the place of its origin.

 

3.Desertification – Definition, problem and prevention

 

In 1949 Auguste Aubréville used the term ‘desrtification’ to describe his observations of areal expansion in the Saharan desert. In 1977 the United Nations Organization held a conference to discuss the problems caused by desertification and its remedies.

   Desrtification is defined as follows:

 

“Although desertification can include the encroachment of sand dunes on land, it doesn’t refer to the advance of deserts. Rather, it is the persistent degradation of dryland ecosystems by human activities — including unsustainable farming, mining, overgrazing and clear- cutting of land — and by climate change” – UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Comba Desertification).

 

Causes for desrtification – Degradation of land around the arid desert zone is a combined result of human, economic, political and climatic factors. Mostly, poverty is held responsible for a negative chain reaction in the delicate ecosystem of these regions. Overexploitation of soil through intensive farming, overgrazing, and destruction of natural vegetation for fodder and fuel are considered the main reasons. Once the soil loses its fertility or vegetation cover, the barren surface is exposed to wind action and its top may be lost. Also in some cases, adjoining desert sand is blown by wind and encroaches upon the non-desert areas. About 50 million people are threatened with displacement due to desertification.

 

Impact of desertification:

 

2.6 billion people depend directly on agriculture, but 52% of the land used for agriculture is moderately or severely affected by soil degradation.

 

Land degradation affects 1.5 billion people globally. Loss of arable land is estimated at 30 to 35 times the historical rate.

 

Due to drought and desertification each year 12 million hectares are lost (23 hectares/minute!), where 20 million tons of grain could have been grown.

 

74% of the poor (42% of the very and 32% of the moderately poor) are directly affected by land degradation globally.

(http://www.unccd.int/Lists/SiteDocumentLibrary/WDCD/DL DD%20Facts.pdf)

   

Remedies for desertification – Sustainable agriculture practices, water conservation and rain harvesting are some suggestions to improve soil quality. Reforestation and checking overgrazing are solutions for prevention of soil erosion, as plant roots bind soil particles together. Tall tree lines are planted to break the wind speed and protect against encroaching sand from deserts.

 

 Combating desertification– Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India:

 

Some examples-

 

The 2006 mapping for the first national map on land degradation shows that out of the 28.5 mha area in Rajasthan and Gujarat, 87% area is degraded, mainly by wind (57%) and water (13%) erosion.

 

CAZRI’s technology on sand dune stabilization through vegetative means has been used by the State of Rajasthan to stabilize more than 400,000 ha area of menacing sand dunes.

 

Technologies have also been developed for shelterbelts, border row plantation, and tree/shrub belts alternating with crop/grass rows to utilize local resources for food, fuel, fodder, fruits, and minor forest products like gum, etc.

 

(Elucidation of the 4th National Report Submitted to UNCCD Secretariat.2010. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, 2011.

 

Summary

 

Aeolian features include all landforms created by wind action. Extremely dry, semi-arid and arid climatic regions display ideal conditions for wind action.

   All the impacts of wind may be classified into—erosion, transportation and deposition. Erosion and deposition result in certain typical features. The scale of these features may be small or large. Thus they range from a few centimetres to several kilometres.

 

Yardang, Zuegen, desert pavements and Deflation Hollows are the most well known erosional features. Besides these, Ventifacts, Mesas and Buttes may also be mentioned among erosional features. Wind carves them by removing loose sand and attacking them with sand-laden blasts.

 

Wind transportation occurs through the processes of suspension, creep, saltation and reptation. When wind velocity diminishes it leaves its load to form Sand Dunes of various types, Sand Ripples, Sand Ridges, Sandfields, Sand Shadows and Sand Drifts.

 

Presently there is a serious concern about more areas transforming into desert-like lands – unproductive, dry and sandy. The process that converts fertile regions into such barren lands is called desertification. Sustainable land use practices and vegetative fences along desert margins are being promoted to prevent this calamity.

 

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you can view video on Aeolian Land Features

References

  • Bagnold, R. A. The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. London: Chapman & Hall, 1973.
  • Bloom, Arthur L. Geomorphology: A Systematic Analysis of Late Cenozoic Landforms. First Indian Reprint. Delhi: Pearson Education (Singapore) Pte. Ltd., 2003.
  • Chorley, Richard J., Schumm, Stanley A. and Sugden, David E. Geomorphology. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1984. Print.
  • Huggett, Richard John. Fundamentals of Geomorphology. 3rd edn. NY: Routledge, 2011.
  • Small, R. J. The Study of Landforms: A Textbook of Geormophology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. Print.
  • Sparks, B. W. Geomorphology. Longman Group Ltd, 1972. Print.
  • Thornbury, William, D. Principles of Geomorphology. John Wiley & Sons, 1969. Print.
  • von Engeln, O. D. Geomorphology. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960. Print.
  • Sanders, John E. Principles of Physical Geology. John Wiley & Sons, 1981.
  • Strahler, A. N. Physical Geography. John Wiley & Sons, 1951.

Web Links:

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sandstorm_in_Al_Asad,_Iraq.jpg
  • http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=81864
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_pavement#/media/File:Desert_pavement_2.jpg
  • http://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/jpl/pia20171/surface-close-up-of-a-martian-sand-dune
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventifact#/media/File:VentifactMojaveDesert031511.jpg.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreikanter#/media/File:Dreikanter_from_the_Wind_River_ Basin,_Wyoming,_USA._Photo_by_AJ_Wakefield,_2012.jpg
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa#/media/File:IslandInTheSky.JPG.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte#/media/File:Monument_Valley,_late_afternoon.jpg.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_rock#/media/File:Timna_5.JPG
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barchan#/media/File:Barchan.jpg
  • https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thorn_Tree_Sossusvlei_Namib_Desert_Namibi a_Luca_Galuzzi_2004.JPG://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune#/media/File:Barchan_in_Noachis.jpg
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune#/media/File:ISS 31_Linear_dunes_in_the_Great_Sand_Sea_in_southwest_Egypt.jpg
  • https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Parabolic_dune.jpg
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune#/media/File:Star-dune.jpg
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripple_marks#/media/File:1969_Afghanistan_%28Sistan%2 9_wind_ripples.tiff
  • http://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/jpl/pia20168/high-dune-is-first-martian-dune-studied-up-clos
  • http://www.handsontheland.org/grsa/resources/images/photos/dune_field_cristos01.jpg
  • http://www.unccd.int/Lists/SiteDocumentLibrary/WDCD/DLDD%20Facts.pdf
  • http://envfor.nic.in/sites/default/files/unccd-report_0.pdf
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yardang#/media/File:Yardang_Lea-Yoakum_Dunes.jpg