18 Urban transport

Dr. tulika Snadhyan

Introduction

  Transport is an important sector of the urban system. An efficient transport system facilitates the smooth functioning and development of the cities. It can be regarded as an engine driving the economic growth of the cities in the world. Similarly the development of better transportation system in cities periphery are responsible for the phenomenon of urban sprawl.

The issue of transportation is more intricate in nature in developing countries. It is mainly due to increasing population and haphazard development of cities in these countries. The complexities can be understood from the fact that transport sector not only includes the issues pertaining to efficient transport design but also equitable mobility of passengers, optimum freight movement and amelioration of existing congestion.

In the light of the above discussion it is important to delve deeper into the issues related to transportation in cities. Today’s lecture is divided into four sections. First section deals with the classical theories pertaining to importance of transportation in location. Second Section highlights the importance of an efficient and effective transport system. In the Section three the focus is on the stages of development of transport in urban areas. Section four covers transportation problems and the last section provides transportation solutions.

1. Transport and Location

Many geographers have given importance to transportation, which affects the location of urban land use, agricultural fields and industries. Von Thunen’s (1826) in his theory of agricultural land rent and use, focused on land rent, commuting cost and the cost of all other goods and services. Urban forms are influenced due to transport networks, as there is a segregation of places of housing and work place. Income of the household determines the choice of housing, for example higher income group prefer to stay in the peripheral areas to avoid congestion and that they can do because of their affordability to have their private vehicles. On the other hand the low-income groups prefer to stay close to the city to minimize the cost of the transportation. Central Place theory by Walter Christaller (1933) predicts that if the transportation cost declines then consumers will travel to greater distances to acquire goods and services. It is mainly due to the size of the market centres, which is determined by the range (i.e., maximum distance a consumer would travel in order to buy goods and services) and threshold (i.e. minimum population required for any production to take place which determines the size of the market centre). Further the transport principle proposed by Christaller states that an urban settlement is most preferred if minimum transportation cost is incurred upon the consumers. The reduction in transportation costs can disperse the population of urban centres since consumers will be more willing to travel to longer distances. Likewise Weber (1909) used transport as one of the variable in determining the location of the industries. The industries are located at a point where the minimum cost is incurred in aggregating raw material and distribution to the market.

2. Importance of Transportation System

2.1 Transportation and Urbanisation

There is a bi-directional relationship between transportation and urbanisation. The segregation of land use over space causes the demand for movement which in turn result into further segregation of landuse in the cities (Carter 1995). The relationship has becomes more complex due to high pace of urbanisation coupled with increasing availability and affordability of transport modes in cities. “Urban mobility problems have increased proportionally, and in some cases exponentially with urbanisation  since mobility demands are concentrated over a specific area. Since 1950, the world’s urban population has more than doubled, to reach nearly 3.5 billion in 2010, about 50.6% of the global population” (Rodrigue 2013).

Transportation as a response to greater urbanisation in cities affects the spatial pattern of cities, which in turns influences the production, consumption, and distribution of goods and services. It is also noteworthy when the transportation infrastructure is developed to meet the demand of the urban areas (definitely the demand is high from large cities or metro cities) the peripheral areas also get reinforcement for their development. This leads to the expansion of urban activities in the peripheral areas leading to suburbanisation process.

Therefore urban transportation is important to understand the morphology, size, density and landuse of urban areas and the spatial pattern of urban functions. “Transport opportunities and travel constraints give shape to the city while the structure of the city affects the form and character of the transport” (Short 1984). The given Figure 1 shows that a transport system affects the accessibility in the cities, which in turn affects the urban landuse. This change in landuse generates the different activity pattern of the population that in turn influences the flows in the transportation system.

Figure1: Transportation Land Use Relationship.

Source: Giuliano 2004

The interconnection between the cities and their respective hinterlands, and city and the metropolitan area are largely dependent on the efficient transportation system. A transport system thus facilitates economic and social mobility, which in turn accelerate urbanisation and economic growth. Further transport sector creates million of job opportunities for the people by way of creating demands for materials and equipment used for this industry.

2.2 Transportation and Economic Development

The transportation stimulates economic mobility. It rearranges the economic ties between cities and their periphery. The demand for transport materials and equipment is also to strengthen economy of a region by creating industries catering to it and also by creating employment opportunities. The laying down of transport routes is also one of the important sectors for absorbing the workforce. Thus changes can be seen in the spatial economy. This relationship between economy and transportation fructifies in three ways as shown by Ramachandran (1981) in figure 2. Figure 2: Model of Transport and Economy Linkages

Source: Ramachandran 1981

The model of transport and economy linkages shows that there are mainly three types of linkages which are as follows:

•  Lateral Linkage- It is a linkage of economy and transportation at a particular point in time. They do not follow the same scale of growth. Relationship is dynamic and grows with time.

•  Vertical Linkage- It is a subsequent development of transportation on the basis of previous developments in transportation and economy. The change is dependent on socio-political, economic and geographical factors.

•  Transverse Linkage- It is the consecutive development of transportation and economy on the basis of lags and leads of each other from the previous stage.

2.2.1 Case Studies

i) Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC)

The ambitious DMIC project of Government of India, which was envisaged on 1499 km of western dedicated freight corridor of railways, is an attempt to develop infrastructure and industry along the route of the corridor. This corridor runs through Dadri in Uttar Pradesh to Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai. Through this project the Government of India wants to create an industrial hub having the lowest manufacturing cost in the world. The project initiated in December 2006. It will cover six states viz. Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Other projects of the similar nature under different stages are Chennai-Bangalore Industrial Corridor, Bangalore-Mumbai Economic Corridor, Eastern Coast Economic Corridor, Amritsar-Kolkata Industrial Corridor.

ii) Delhi Metro Rail that was constituted to decongest the roads of Delhi started a run for 22.06 km in 2002. At present it covers 204 Kilometres covering Delhi and the satellite cities of Faridabad, Gurgaon, NOIDA and Ghaziabad (Metro Rail website). The development of the Metro has not just eased the movement of people but has also given momentum to further urban sprawl. The covering up of Delhi Metropolitan Area (DMA) towns will go a long way in penetrating urban growth inside the surrounding states.

3. Growth of Transport in Cities

The form and character of the transport affects the internal structure of the cities. Suburban growth in recent times has become a reality due to the improved transportation facilities. Expansion of built up areas in the cities has been a result of efficient transport network. Urban forms of the cities have been restructured due to the increasing transportation infrastructure.

The stages of transport evolution are easily recognisable in developed countries. On the other hand in developing countries due to haphazard development of cities itself, heterogeneous population and transport modes, the development of transport is not sequential rather it is very haphazard.

As you can see in the following series of graphs in Figure 3 that how the built-up area of the city in western countries is expanding from a stage of the pedestrian to a public transport to that of a early motor transport and finally to a fully developed private motorisation.

Figure 3: Stages in the Evolution of Urban Transport System: Western Model

Source: Herbert and Thomas 1990

4. Urban Transportation Problems

    4.1 Congestion

It is mainly due to the growth in the number of vehicles and limitation of expansion of roads’ capacity. Due to rise in travel demand the numbers of vehicles have increased in the cities. Further due to lack of good mass transport system there is a surge in private vehicles. Figure 4 depicts that car ownership and its use have increased considerably over the period with the increase in the road infrastructure thereby leading to congestion in the long run. According to Short (1984) “In the large areas there is a segregation of activities…. As the distribution of activities has become further separated and public transport has declined, then accessibility has become increasingly a function of car ownership”.

Figure 4: Cars and Congestion Relationship

Source:  Buis 2009(Cited in Shanghai Manual,2010)

In developing countries such as India there is also a high growth of two-wheelers due to factors related to increase in income levels, economical pricing and requirement of little space for parking. Table 1 reflects that the number of registered two-wheelers and cars in India are increasing every year. Table 1: Number of Registered Vehicles in India (in ‘000)

Year	All Vehicles	Two Wheelers	Cars, Jeeps &Taxis	Buses
1951	306	27	159	34
1961	665	88	310	57
1971	1865	576	682	94
1981	5391	2618	1160	162
1991	21374	14200	2954	331
2001	54991	38556	7058	634
2011	141866	101865	19231	1604

Source: Compiled from Motor Transport Statistics, 2011-12. Government of India.

From website.

   Congestion is further worsening by poor design of roads, which do not allow segregation of vehicles travelling vastly at different speeds (Agarwal 2006). As both the motorised and non-motorised vehicles are operating on the roads the speed of the vehicles gets reduced leading to congestion. Lack of finances and presence of landuse on either side of the roads also constrain the expansion of roads.

The problem of congestion is further aggravated in developing countries due to the non-segregation of work hours. It leads to peak hour traffic congestion on roads.

4.2 Inefficiency of Public Transport System

There is a general decline in the public transportation system due to rise in the personal motor vehicles. The main reasons for the non-acceptance of public transport are its lack of comfort, poor frequency, poor accessibility, lack of flexibility for commuting, poor maintenance etc. Figure 5 reveals that the percent share of vehicles in total registered vehicles in India depicts low and declining share of buses. The share of two-wheelers on the other hand shows rapid growth.

Figure 5: Percent Share of Vehicles in Total Registered Vehicles in India (1951-2011)

Source: Generated from Motor Transport Statistics, 2011-12. Government of India.

From website.

    4.3 Declining Importance of Non-Motorised Transport System

It is another major problem, as it doesn’t provide a link to the public transport system, which facilitates long journeys. Further there is no dedicated cycle lane for the commuters, which are accidents prone due to their low speed.

4.4 Neglect of Pedestrians on Roads

The planning of the city only considers the roads and motor-car planning and it lacks the facilities for pedestrians. Walking can be important for short distances provided there are safety measures and conveniences for the walkers. Thomson (1971) also stated “most of the people professionally responsible for urban transport are car owners. The most powerful transport authorities are usually highway engineering departments” (quoted in Short 1987).

4.5 Parking Difficulties

An increasing number of cars on the road would mean a greater space occupied by them. Subsequently, a lack of space compels people to park their vehicles on the roadsides, which further creates traffic congestion problem.

4.6 Noise and Atmospheric Pollution

A consistent growth in vehicles has adverse impact on the environment. There is an increase in the levels of sulphur-dioxide (SO2), nitrous dioxide (NO2) and fine particulate matter (PM10) in the cities due to the emissions from motorised vehicles. Highest air pollution levels are observed during peak hour period and at traffic signals. Table 2 shows that the average annual level of PM10 (annual average – 60 µg/m3) is very high in Indian cities. Almost all cities are showing above average levels of fine particulate matter. The levels of SO2 (annual average – 50 µg/m3) are within limits except Kalyan Dombivali while that of NO2 (annual average – 40 µg/m3) deviates in few of the cities namely Delhi, Kolkata, Navi Mumbai, Jaipur etc.

Table 2: Level of Air Pollution in Cities, India (2012)

Source: Motor Transport Statistics, India 2011-12. From website.

Note: * denotes above annual limits of pollutants from the normal

4.7 Accidents

Road deaths and casualties are one of the serious problems faced by the urban dwellers. There are increasing numbers of deaths on roads due to accidents. In India pedestrians and two-wheelers are worst hit in road casualties.

Do You Know?

As per Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) Report, on an average five person dies in road accidents every day in Delhi, in which four of them are either pedestrians or two wheeler riders (Times of India, 24thJune 2014).

4.8 Divided Responsibilities

As it can be seen in figure 6 the whole set of problems mentioned above are the result of poor coordination between the central and the state authorities who are responsible for transport in urban areas. There is no integral planning for urban transport, causing delays, confusion, disputes and poor accountability. It hampers the development of transport in urban areas.

Figure 6: Agencies Responsible for Urban Transport

Source: Agarwal (2006)

   5. Transport Solutions

5.1 Integrated Transport and Land use Planning

It will enable efficient movement and consequent less congestion on roads and containment of travel demand. Workplaces and residences should be planned together. Self-contained small clusters are desirable in the city region. Transport corridors must be deigned prior to any landuse planning. According to Agarwal (2006) since shifting residences and employment is a difficult task in developing countries due to complicated buying and selling of houses, high rentals and limited supply of rental accommodation, therefore there is a need to pay attention on these aspects.

5.2 Optimal Modal Mix

Preferences should be given to each mode of transportation as the people are using different modes depending upon their economic conditions. It is well known that high-income households rely on personal vehicles and low incomes on non-motorised modes. The main focus should be to make roads more equitable to people rather than increasing the provision of vehicles. However according to Agarwal (2006) it is important to consider the congestion impacts, emission characteristics and energy efficiencies to ensure sustainable mobility.

5.3 Promotion of Non-Motorised Modes

Non-motorised modes of transport, which includes cycle, rickshaw, and walking, are greener modes of travel. The use of these modes should be encouraged. To popularise these modes segregated lanes should be designed as shown in figure 7. Further it is essential to make improvements in their technology and make provision of safe parking for them.

Figure 7: Road, Pedestrian and Cycle Lane

Source: Google Images

5.4 Improvement of Public Transport

Public transport should be made one of the preferred modes as it occupies less road space, consumes less fuel and emits less fuel per passenger per kilometre travel in comparison to personal motor vehicles. Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS) viz., Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) (figure 8), metro, monorail, light rails should be encouraged. In India BRTS is running in cities of Ahmadabad, Delhi, Jaipur, Indore, Rajkot, Surat, Vijaywada and Pune. Metro rail is functioning in Delhi-National Capital Region, Kolkata, Bangalore, Mumbai, Chennai and Jaipur. Monorail is operative in Mumbai. Planning is going on for other cities of Chennai, Kolkata and Coimbatore. Strategies should be devised to promote public transport system and non-motor mode while discouraging the personal motor vehicles.

Figure 8: BRTS system in Guangzhou (China)

Source: Shanghai manual, 2010

5.5 Discouraging Personal Motor vehicles

It measure can be achieved by fiscal and control measures. Fiscal measures includes fee for using certain crowded part of the city, high parking fees, increasing vehicle registration charges and increasing tax on fuel etc. Control measures includes physical restriction on the use of personal vehicles on busy transport corridors, limiting the availability of parking space in city centre, limiting the availability of road space for personal vehicles, restricting the ownership of vehicles (Agarwal 2006) Some of the effective control measures are congestion charges in London and Singapore. The congestion charges are levied based upon the time (peak hour period) and location (busy corridors) of running the vehicles. Quota based system and ‘Certificate for Entitlement Scheme’ for vehicle ownership is practiced in Singapore.

5.6 Monitoring Pollution Levels

With the promotion of public transport and non-motorised modes and discouragement of private transport, the vehicular emission per person could be reduced. However this should be in consonance with improved vehicular technology, use of cleaner fuels and taking off the obsolete vehicles from the roads.

National Green Tribunal (NGT) of India has banned vehicles older than 15 years. According to a report published in Indian Express (2nd December 2014) this will take away 29 lakhs vehicles from the roads of Delhi. Supreme Court of India has also supported NGT’s decision on the ban on older vehicles (reported in Indian Express 21st April 2015).

Another noteworthy decision to reduce the pollution levels in Delhi by NGT is ordering commercial vehicles entering Delhi to pay environmental compensation charge over and above the municipal toll tax (reported in Indian Express 8th October 2015). Further, with the direction of Supreme Court on a Public Interest Litigation (1998) asking for running of buses, three wheelers and taxis on Compressed Natural Gas (CNG as alternate fuel) by 2001 has helped in reducing the pollution level of Delhi in early 2000’s (Times of India, 9th November 2011). The need of the hour is to adopt and promote bio-fuels such as ethanol, bio-diesel, green diesel, etc.

5.7 Adopting Coordinated Planning Measures

The figure 9 depicts that various agencies responsible for transport and traffic management should work in close coordination. There should be high-level statutory body, which is representative of all the agencies working in the field of transport planning. In the background of this Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority (UMTA) as suggested by planners should be constituted.

Figure 9: Typical Institutional Structure of a Sustainable Urban Transport System

Source: Asian Development Bank 2009

Conclusion

Urbanisation is a continuous process and the problem of transportation is one of the crucial aspects to be dealt in urban areas. The gap between the demand and supply for transportation facility should be minimised with proper planning and policy intervention. There should be a paradigm shift towards adopting sustainable measures in city transport planning. Promotion of non-motorised vehicles and giving the due regards to pedestrians would make the city structure a sustainable for living.

References

• Agarwal , O.P. 2006.“Urban Transport.” In India Infrastructure Report. http://www.iitk.ac.in/3inetwork/html/reports/IIR2006/Urban%20Transport.pdf
• Asian Development Bank. 2009.“Changing Course: A new paradigm for sustainable urban transport.” http://adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2009/new-paradigm-transport.pdf
• Carter, Harold. 1995.The study of Urban Geography. London: Arnold Publication.
• Giuliano, Genevive. 2004. “Land use Impacts of Urban Transportation: Highway and Transit” In The Geography of Urban Transportation,edited by Susan Hanson and GeneviveGuilano. New York: Guilford Press.
• Herbert, David T and Colin J. Thomas. 1990.Cities in Space: City as Place. London: David Fulton Publishers.
• Indian Express. 2 Dec. 2014. NGT Order: Over 29 lakh vehicles set to go off Delhi’s roads.
• Indian Express. 21 April 2015. Supreme Court backs NGT’s ban on old vehicles in Delhi.
• Indian Express. 8 October 2015. Commercial vehicles entering Delhi ordered to pay environmental tax.
• Metro Present Length. 2015. http://www.delhimetrorail.com/projectpresent.aspx and http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/modi-inaugurates-delhifaridabad-metro-line/article7621874.ece
• Motor Transport Statistics. 2012. www.data.gov.in
• Ramachandran, H. 1981.“Transport and Urban Attributes: A Study of Structural Relations.”Annals of the National Association of GeographersIndia1(1):47-68.
• Rodrigue, Jean Paul. 2013. The Geography of Transportation System. New York: Routledge.
• Short, John R. 1984. An Introduction to Urban Geography. London and New York: Routledge.
• Times of India. 24 June 2014. Delhi roads India’s most dangerous
• Times of India. 9 Nov 2011. 10 yrs on, CNG advantage lost.
• United Nations. 2010.“Shanghai Manual: A guide for sustainable urban development in the 21st century.”https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/shanghaimanu al.pdf