30 The Stockholm Convention

Dr. Shanawaz Ahmad Baba

epgp books

    Structure

 

1.1 Introduction

 

1.2 Harmful Effects of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP)

 

1.3 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

 

1.4 Objective of Stockholm Convention

 

1.5 Main Provisions of the Stockholm Convention

 

1.6 Types of Persistent Organic Pollutants

 

1.7 Process of Adding New Chemicals

 

1.8 Stockholm Convention and National Implementation Plan

 

1.9 Financial and Technical Assistance

 

1.10 Entry into Force and Withdrawal

 

1.11 India and Stockholm Convention

 

1.12 Criticism and Controversies of Stockholm Convention on POPs

 

1.13 Conclusion

 

 

Objectives:

  • To get familiar with Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP) and its harmful effects
  • To understand the notion of Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
  • To discuss objectives and main provisions of Stockholm Convention
  • To know types of Persistent Organic Pollutants
  • To get familiar with process of adding new chemicals and implementatio of convention
  • To discuss India and Stockholm Convention
  • To examine drawbacks and criticism of Stockholm Convention

 

1.1 Introduction

 

Persistent Organic Pollution (POP) substances are highly stable and therefore non-degradable to a large extent, they can be transported over long distances and accumulate in the environment. POPs cause problems because they are stored in the fatty tissue or organs of animals, where they can have toxic effects. Persistent organic pollutants are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological and photolytic processes. Because of their persistence, POPs bio accumulates with possible adverse impacts on health and the environment.

 

1. The effect of POPs on human and environmental health was discussed, with intention to eliminate or severely restrict their production, by the international community at the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001. Many POPs were widely used during the boom in industrial production after World War II, when thousands of synthetic chemicals were introduced into commercial use. Many of these chemicals proved beneficial in pest and disease control, crop production, and industry. These same chemicals, however, have had unforeseen effects on human health and the environment.

 

POPs includes a range of substances that include:

 

Intentionally produced chemicals currently or once used in agriculture, disease control, manufacturing, or industrial processes. Examples include PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), which have been useful in a variety of industrial applications (e.g., in electrical transformers and large capacitors, as hydraulic and heat exchange fluids, and as additives to paints and lubricants) and pesticides such as DDT, which is still used to control mosquitoes that carry malaria in some parts of the world.

 

Unintentionally produced chemicals such as dioxins, that result from some industrial processes and from combustion (for example, municipal and medical waste incineration and backyard burning of trash).

 

Studies on the levels of POPs in the global environment show that emission sources of a number of POPs (such as DDTs and HCHs) in late 20 years have shifted from industrialized countries of Northern Hemisphere to less developing countries in tropical and sub-tropical regions including India and China, owing to the late production ban or still being used both legally and illegally in agriculture and for the control of disease such as malaria, typhus and cholera.

 

   1.2 Harmful Effects of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP)

 

Today POPs are found everywhere i.e., in our food, soil, water and air. Wildlife and human around the world carry amounts of Pops in their bodies that are at or near levels that can cause injury. Persistent organic pollutants can:

 

disrupt the endocrine system cause cancer

 

cause genetic defects

 

weaken the immune system

 

In people, reproductive, developmental, behavioral, neurologic, endocrine, and immunologic adverse health effects have been linked to POPs

 

Various effects of POPs on marine mammals have been investigated. Studies of Baltic ringed seals (Phoca hispida) and grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) found uterine occlusions, stenoses and tumours, resulting in reduced reproductive ability.

 

Other observed effects included colonic ulcers, as well as reduced bone density, which led to changes in the skeletal system.

 

In seals and porpoises, researchers found indications that POPs depress the immune and endocrine systems.

 

A further topic of discussion in this context is whether these pollutants and the weakening of the immune system affect the spread of epidemics, such as the disease that killed thousands of seals in the North Sea in 1988 and again in 2002 probably an epidemic of the phocine distemper virus. Humans mainly ingest POPs from food and drinking water, but also from the air (mainly by breathing in dust particles) and through the skin (through direct contact with the chemicals). The highest concentrations of POPs are generally found in marine mammals and humans, both of which are at the top of the food chain. People are mainly exposed to POPs through contaminated foods. Less common exposure routes include drinking contaminated water and direct contact with the chemicals. In people and other mammals alike, POPs can be transferred through the placenta and breast milk to developing offspring. A number of populations are at particular risk of POPs exposure, including people whose diets include large amounts of fish, shellfish, or wild foods that are high in fat and locally obtained. In addition, sensitive populations, such as children, the elderly, and those with suppressed immune systems, are typically more susceptible to many kinds of pollutants, including POPs. Because POPs have been linked to reproductive impairments, men and women of child-bearing age may also be at risk.

 

1.3 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

 

Drawn under the leadership of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) with significant contributions from nongovernmental organisations, trade unions, and private companies it has been saluted as a global public health treaty, one that will protect public health both from DDT and malaria, the first global agreement ever to seek to ban an entire class of chemicals because of their direct effects on human health. After four years of work, in December 2000 this international legally binding instrument was finalised. In May 2001 delegates from over one hundred countries (including the United States, Canada, and all members of the European Union) signed the accord in Stockholm, Sweden. It was expected to be put into effect by 2004, after 50 nations have ratified it (so far, eight countries have done so). Meanwhile, governments can facilitate voluntary implementation of the agreement prior to its entry into force. Implementation of the treaty at all population levels (municipal, regional, continental) constitutes a fantastic opportunity to foster changes in environmental, occupational, public health, and food policies. But the challenges are immense.

 

The Stockholm Convention on POPs is a global treaty that aims to protect human health and the environment from POPs. The Convention includes several requirements in the control of POPs including banning or restricting the production, use, import and exports of POPs and measures to reduce and or eliminate their releases. The Convention also contains obligations regarding wastes containing POPs including a requirement to destroy or irreversibly transform the POP content of wastes. The Stockholm Convention is managed by the United Nations Environment Program and its Secretariat is based in Geneva, Switzerland. UNEP is the leading international environmental entity that supports the agenda and implementation of environmental sustainability for the United Nations. The COP, or the Conference of the Parties of the Stockholm Convention, governs the POPs Convention, with its members being the Convention’s Parties. The role of Parties is to implement the obligations of the Convention, including eliminating or restricting the production and use of the intentionally produced POPs, prohibiting and eliminating production and use or import of POPs, conducting research, identifying areas contaminated with POPs, and providing financial support and incentives for the Convention. The process of becoming a Party begins with a state or regional economic integration organization submitting a means of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession to the depositary. Official contact points and national focal points are nominated to carry out administrative, communications, and information exchange procedures.

 

Source: UNEP.org

 

1.4 Objective of Stockholm Convention

 

Mindful of the precautionary approach as set forth in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, the objective of this Convention is to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants

 

    1.5 Main Provisions of the Stockholm Convention

 

Prohibit and/or eliminate the production and use, as well as the import and export, of the intentionally produced POPs that are listed in Annex A to the Convention (Article 3). Annex A allows for the registration of specific exemptions for the production or use of listed POPs, in accordance with that Annex and Article 4, bearing in mind that special rules apply to PCBs. Restrict the production and use, as well as the import and export, of the intentionally produced POPs that are listed in Annex B to the Convention (Article 3). Annex B allows for the registration of acceptable purposes for the production and use of the listed POPs, in accordance with that Annex, and for the registration of specific exemptions for the production and use of the listed POPs, in accordance with that Annex and Article 4.

 

Reduce or eliminate releases from unintentionally produced POPs that are listed in Annex C to the Convention (Article 5).

 

Ensure that stockpiles and wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs are managed safely and in an environmentally sound manner (Article 6). The Convention requires that such stockpiles and wastes be identified and managed to reduce or eliminate POPs releases from these sources. The Convention also requires that wastes containing POPs are transported across international boundaries taking into account relevant international rules, standards and guidelines.

 

To target additional POPs (Article 8). The Convention provides for detailed procedures for the listing of new POPs in Annexes A, B and/or C. A Committee composed of experts in chemical assessment or management – the Persistent Organic Pollutants review Committee, is established to examine proposals for the listing of chemicals, in accordance with the process set out in Article 8 and the information requirements specified in Annexes D, E and F of the Convention.

 

1.6 Types of Persistent Organic Pollutants

 

There are however numerous other POPs which are also environmental contaminants and are of great concern. Some of them are both persistent and toxic, and still in widespread production and use, in both industrialized and less industrialized countries. These include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), hexachlorohexane (HCH) isomers such as the organochlorine pesticide (OCP) lindane, organotin compounds (for example, used as anti-fouling agents for ships), organic mercurycompounds, some other pesticides – pentachlorophenol, endosulfan and atrazine, chlorinated paraffins (for example, used in cutting oils and lubricants), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE, used as flame retardants) and certain phthalates: dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and diethyl-hexylphthalate (DEHP), which are less persistent but are not the less hazardous (mainly used as plastic softeners, especially in polyvinyl chloride (PVC)).

 

1.7 Process of Adding New Chemicals

 

New chemicals can be added to the treaty based on a scientific review procedure that involves Parties and interested observers. The basic steps of the process are as follows:

 

     The decision of the COP to add a chemical to the treaty is binding on all Parties one year later, except for (a) Parties that “opt out” of this decision within the one year period, or (b) Parties that choose to invoke a separate “opt in” procedure under which they are not bound until they affirmatively accept a new obligation. The COP began adding new chemicals to the agreement in May of 2009.

 

1.8 Stockholm Convention and National Implementation Plan Each party to the Stockholm Convention is required:

 

i. To develop a national implementation plan (NIP) describing how it will meet the obligations set by the agreement.

 

ii. Governments must develop NIPs within two years from its entry into force.

 

iii. The NIP should supply a framework to implement, in a systematic and participatory way, priority policy and regulatory reform, capacity building, and investment programmes.

 

iv. Developing countries and countries with economies in transition are eligible for capacity building support for the implementation of the NIP.

 

v. Finance for these plans is available through the Global Environment Facility (GEF).

 

vi. The GEF has established some guidelines for enabling activities for the Stockholm Convention, and has approved the project “Development of National Implementation Plans for the Management of POPs”, the objective of which is to strengthen national capacity to manage POPs and to apply the Convention.

 

1.9 Financial and Technical Assistance

 

Developed countries will have to provide funds and technical assistance to less developed nations, so that the latter can take effective measures. The European Commission seems committed to providing technical and financial assistance to developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Canada has pioneered a contribution of 200000 $ to China to reduce the use and dispersion of POPs. China and India are still producing DDT. Even if they ratify the treaty, it is unclear at what pace they will implement it. Although the Convention does not create a new fund or establish specific assessments, developed countries are to collectively provide new and additional financial resources. These funds will enable developing country Parties to meet the agreed full incremental costs of implementing measures to fulfil their obligations under the Convention. On an interim basis, the Convention designates the Global Environment Facility (GEF) as the primary, but not exclusive, component of the financial mechanism. The GEF is a financial mechanism established to address global environmental threats.

   

1.10 Entry into Force and Withdrawal

 

Ø Entry : This Convention shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date of deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession. For each State or regional economic integration organization that ratifies, accepts or approves this Convention or accedes thereto after the deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, the Convention shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date of deposit by such State or regional economic integration organization of its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.

 

Ø Withdrawal: At any time after three years from the date on which this Convention has entered into force for a Party that Party may withdraw from the Convention by giving written notification to the depositary. Any such withdrawal shall take effect upon the expiry of one year from the date of receipt by the depositary of the notification of withdrawal, or on such later date as may be specified in the notification of withdrawal.

 

1.11 India and Stockholm Convention

 

The Convention was adopted on 22 May 2001 and entered into force on 17 May 2004. India ratified the convention on 13 January 2006. Under the convention, the chemicals can be listed for Elimination (Annex-A), Restriction (Annex-B) or Unintentional production (Annex-C). The implementation of the convention requires its parties to take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of these POPs into the environment. Till date, 26 chemicals are listed as POPs under the Stockholm Convention. As of now, India has ratified only the 12 initially listed POPs. As a first step for implementation of Stockholm Convention in India a National Implementation Plan has been prepared. India is in process for ratification of selected newly listed POPs.

 

The Convention will enable India to avail technical and financial assistance for implementing measures to meet the obligations of the Convention. India is the largest user of Endosulfan Endosulfan is used as an organochlorine insecticide and acaricide (killing tickes and mites). Endosulphan belongs to organochlorine group of pesticides such as DDT. It causes endocrine disruption and neurotoxic impacts. It is also supposed to be a genotoxic and may lead to genetic mutation, however, it has not been found to be a carcinogenic.Because of its threats to environment as a POP, it is banned in more than 63 countries but still is widely used. In India it is produced by Hindustan Insecticides Limited. Currently, a global ban on the use and manufacture of endosulfan is being considered under the Stockholm Convention. In India, Endosulfan was put on hold in Kerala due to some peculiar health impacts seen after aerial spray of in Cashew Plantations in Kerala. In other states there are approved manners of usage. There have been conflicting views on the usage and impacts of Endosulfan. The officials say that there is lack of full scientific certainty about its health and environment impacts. However, the environment activists say that the nexus of the government with the insecticide lobby leads to the stern stand of the Government. India’s stand was not clear in the Persistent Organic Pollutants’ Review Committee (POPRC) of the Stockholm Convention that began in Geneva, Switzerland that held in October 2010.In India, the Kerala Government demanded the ban on the pesticide as at least a few hundred people have died of poisoning caused by the chemical. Many face a wide range of genetic abnormalities and other health problems.

 

India raised objections to the “absence of alternatives” in the recommendation for a global ban on endosulfan at the conference of parties to the Stockholm Convention meeting in Geneva. India had circulated a draft in the Asia Pacific Group seeking postponement of a decision on endosulfan to the next conference of parties. However, this was opposed by Gulf countries such as Bahrain, Qatar and Oman, which pointed out that they had banned endosulfan. India, however, has not withdrawn the draft.

 

 

1.12 Criticism and Controversies of Stockholm Convention on POPs

 

Ø  Although some critics have alleged that the treaty is responsible for the continuing death toll from malaria, in reality the treaty specifically permits the public health use of DDT for the control of mosquitoes (the malaria vector). There are also ways to prevent high amounts of DDT consumed by using other malaria vectors such as window screens. As long as there are specific measures taken, such as use of DDT indoors, then the limited amount of DDT can be used in a regulated fashion.

 

Ø  From a developing country perspective, a lack of data and information about the sources, releases, and environmental levels of POPs hampers negotiations on specific compounds, and indicates a strong need for research.

 

Ø  Another controversy would be certain POPs (which are continually active, specifically in the Arctic Biota) that were mentioned in the Stockholm Convention, but were not part of the Dirty Dozen such as Perfluorooctone sulfonates (PFOs). PFOs have many general uses such as stain repellents but have many properties which can make it a dangerous due to the fact that that PFOs can be highly resistant to environmental breakdown. PFOs can be toxic in terms of increased offspring death, decrease in body weight, and the disruption of neurological systems. What makes this compound controversial is the economic and political impact it can have among various countries and businesses.

 

1.13 Conclusion

 

In summary, a global environmental treaty such as the Stockholm Convention triggers, streamlines and catalyzes global scientific exchange. Such a global impact will gain even more significance in the future due to the mounting awareness that environmental problems of today and tomorrow can be efficiently addressed and solved only by considering the limits we place on the planet we share.

 

 

you can view video on The Stockholm Convention

References

  1. EPA (2017): Persistent organic pollutants: A global issue a global response. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/persistent-organic-pollutants-global-issue-global-response. Accessed on 02/10/2017.
  2. Fiedler H (2008): Stockholm Convention on Pops: Obligations and Implementation. In: Mehmetli E., Koumanova B. (eds) The Fate of Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Environment. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series. Springer, Dordrecht
  3. Fu et al., (2003): Persistent organic pollutants in environment of the Pearl river delta China: An overview. Chemosphere, Vol. 52, pp. 1411-1422.
  4. Karlaganis G,  Marioni  R  and  Sieber  I  (2001):  The  elaboration  of  the  “Stockholm Convention” on persistent organic pollutants (POPs): a negotiation process fraught with obstacles and opportunities. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. Vol. 8, pp. 216-21.
  5. Loganathan BG and Kannan K (1994) Global organochlorine contamination trends: an overview. Ambio, vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 187-191.
  6. Magulova K (2012): Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants: triggering, streamlining and catalyzing global scientific exchange. Atmospheric Pollution Research. Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 366-368.
  7. Mathew R (2017): Stockholm convention: Is India thawing. The Hindu Online. Retrieved from http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Stockholm-convention-is-Indiathawing/ article1 4697838.ece. Accessed on 01/10/2017.
  8. Porta M and Zumeta E (2002): Implementing the Stockholm Treaty on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. Vol. 59, pp. 651-653.
  9. Tanabe, S (1994) International Mussel Watch in Asia-Pacific Phase (Editorial). Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 28, p. 518.
  10. Wikipedia (2017): Persistent Organic Pollutant. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Persistent_organic_pollutant. Accessed on 01/10/2017.
  11. World Ocean Review (2017): Pollution. Retrieved from http://worldoceanreview.com/en /wor -1/pollution/organic-pollutants/. Accessed on 02/10/2017.