26 Systems Approach and System Analysis

Dr. Janki Jiwan

I. Introduction

The word system has been derived from the Greek word “system” which means a set of rules that govern structure and behaviours. In other words, the system is termed as a unified whole (working body) which consists of interdependently functioning elements. The element is very basic part of a unified whole. For example, the human body is a biological system involving various elements (parts) like cells, tissues, blood, bones, and muscles. These elements (parts) are functioning interdependently. Likewise, the Earth itself is the largest system which is made of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. The biosphere is the largest ecosystem made of interconnected sub-systems (both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems) viz., forest, grassland, desert, ocean, lake, pond etc. These systems vary greatly in size and scale ranging from microscopic to micro, meso and macro. For instance, biosphere forms an ecosystem of macro size and rivulet can form a micro one.

A. System Approach to Geography

The concept of the system approach has been fundamentally derived from the general systems approach or theory. A biologist named Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s seminal paper on open systems is attributed as a seedling for the rise of the system movement. He has published various papers on a system approach to biology between the 1920s and 1950s. His papers aimed at giving account for the key distinction between the organismic systems of biology and the closed systems of conventional physics and understanding common laws that govern the life of organisms. Through his general system approach, he comprehended intrinsic unification of different streams of sciences and fusion between science and environment. For von Bertalanffy, the main propositions of general systems approach or theory were1:

1. Isomorphisms between the mathematical structures in different scientific disciplines could integrate and unify the sciences;

2.  Open systems require consideration of the flow of energy, matter, and information between the system and its environment;

3.   Within open systems, the same final system state may be reached from different initial conditions and by different paths – open systems exhibit equifinality;

4.   Teleological behaviour directed towards a final state or goal is a legitimate phenomenon for systemic scientific inquiry;

5.    A  scientific  theory  of  organization  is  required,  to  account  for  wholeness,  growth, differentiation, hierarchical order, dominance, control and competition; and 6. GST could provide a basis for the education of scientific generalists

As per the above-mentioned propositions, a general system is a unified whole of elements bound together by specific linkages. It is higher order generalization of a multiplicity of systems, their complex structures, and functions. This is an analytical framework to unify various sciences. It has a self-sustaining mechanism. Such systems may be open or closed and may change over the period of time. Most general systems, however, are open. As discussed earlier the earth is an open system in which there are inputs, outputs, and energy flow through a variety of mechanisms. The linkages, or connections, that bind entities together into a system, are paths through which matter, energy, ideas, and people pass from one element to another.

Alex J. Ryan (2008) What is a Systems Approach? Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA, available at https://arxiv.org/abs/0809.1698v1

As very early, Ludwig von Bertalanffy had realized the importance of system approach to non-biological science. Over the period of time, geographers introduced system approach to various geographical studies. R. J. Chorley, Leopold and Landbein, Wolderberg and Berry were some prominent geographers who made its application possible in geography. In fact, it was R. J. Chorley, who become the first geographer brought about this approach or theory to geography. His paper “Geomorphology and General system theory” (1962) focused on the mainly application of the concept of open and closed system in Geomorphology. In addition, Leopold and Landbein applied entropy and steady state in the study of the fluvial system. Berry developed a basis for the study of the city as a system within the system of cities in spatial form by using the two concepts viz., organization and information. Wolderberg and Berry have applied system concept to analyze central place and river system. Curry has tried to use this concept to the spatial location of settlement. Even new age geographers solve numerous spatial problems through a general systems approach in both human and physical geography. They use the system as analytical models to understand and explain spatial patterns and interactions. Human geographers, for example, use the system model to examine human migration patterns, the diffusion of ideas, and the spread of information. Moreover, researchers in physical geography trust this approach in understanding natural set up in which physical system operates. In short, researchers in both physical and human geography are interested in identifying, explaining, and predicting flows in human and physical systems. They also search, identify, describe, and explain cycles and patterns of geographical phenomena in different.

In other words, the systems approach is used in a variety of applied branches of geography viz., land-use planning, natural resource management, watershed management, regional planning, management of pollution (water, air, soil, sound), environmental management, climate change etc. These areas involve the study of elements and sub-system of general environment like quantitative, qualitative, behavioural, socio-economic, and political subsystems. The qualitative subsystem encompasses finite space including urban, rural, empty or filled places, psychological spaces, and their various-use. It also includes a variety of concepts like capability, carrying capacity and stability. The economic subsystem comprises decision-making processes based on well-tested economic theories whereas citizens, governments, civil administration, and civil societies form the political subsystem, which plays a vital role in geopolitics of a state (nation) being studied in political geography. The behavioural subsystem consists of attitudes, values, beliefs, customs, and traditions, which are integral parts of behavioural geography. A general systems model is a composite one in which physical and socio-economic variables are intricately linked. Some of the variables may be measured quantitatively and some may not. The systems approach involves a number of relationships (links) between variables (elements). Now geographers use statistical tools like multi-variable analysis, principal components analysis (PCA), probability theory, Chi-Square and Gini-coefficient to analyze data on geographical variables explaining interlinks between them in a system.

II.  Systems Analysis

A. Basic Elements

System, as discussed earlier, is a unified whole or working body, which consists of interdependently functioning elements. There are multiple variables or elements that form a system. A system forming basic elements are as follows:

1. Inputs and Outputs: Every system requires a regular flow of inputs for producing an amount of output. Without inputs, no outputs can be produced in a system. For example, a fixed agricultural output needs a certain amount of inputs of seeds, water, fertilizers, labor etc. in the assumed constant external environment.

2. Processors: It involves the actual transformation of input into output. It is the operational component of a system. Processors may process the input totally or partially, depending upon nature, amount, and requirement of the output.

3. Control: This is an important element, which guides and controls the system. It is basically the decision-making subsystem that governs the pattern of activities like processing input and producing output.

4. Feedback: Feedback is an indication for characteristics, amount of produced output against the set parameters and standard. Feedback is conducted on the principle of cybernetics which comprises communication and control. Feedback is of two types., viz.,

positive or negative. It is good to have positive feedback, which strengthens system’s performance. Negative feedback gives the wrong signal if the system is not functioning well and it also makes available the controller with information on actions required for its correction.

5. Environment: Every system is operating in a unique environment. It is a broader framework often called “supra-system”, Which affect operating system and determining routes and rules of its functioning.

6. Boundaries and Interfaces: A system has delineated boundaries or limits through which it identifies its components, processes, and interrelationships when it interfaces with another system or with its environment.

B. Components of a System

A set of elements form component and a set of components form a system. All systems of varying scales are having three basic components as follows:

1.     A set of elements

2.     A set of functioning links

3.       A set of links between system and external environment

All systems have internal and external environments. The external environment influences the internal environment of the system. Some systems are close and some are open. A closed system can easily be created in science laboratories. In other words, the closed system exists mainly in a controlled environment like chemical labs. For example, chemists conduct chemical tests in their labs but such kind of total control is not possible in an open environment like agricultural or forest land, but in open environments like agricultural land, some elements can be partially controlled. Such partially controlled environments are of great importance for semi-scientific experiments aiming at socio-economic development. This is to be understood with this example. If farmers want to know impacts of certain inputs on a crop production. Impacts of inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, high-yield seeds, labour on crop production can be known by controlled and regulating inputs in a farm. With above discussion, the basic characteristics of a system can be inferred as follows:

1.     System is a well organized and an integrated ideal body;

2.     Systems have multiple elements and components;

3.     The components in a system are interdependently functioning;

4.     Systems have a structure and pattern of behaviour;

5.     Systems have a boundary and interfaces;

6.     Systems are at balancing and enduring state;

7.     Systems affect and are affected by their internal and external environment;

8.     Systems exhibit feedback;

9.     Systems are either closed and open and

10.  Predominant systems in the environment are open-ended.

C. Essential Features

Above mentioned basic characteristics exhibit some interlinked essential features of a system as follows:

1.       Environment of a System

2.       The Behaviour of a System

3.       The State of a System

4.       Organization and Information in System

5.       Structure of a System

1. Environment of a System

The environment of a system is supra-structure in which system operates. There is countless system and their sub-systems are working in our environment. The environment is classified as physical environment, socio-cultural environment, political environment. Socio-cultural environment and political environments operate in their physical environment. In fact, each system has its own physical, socio-economic environment that affects the performance of that system positively or negatively. For example, farmland is a system, its agricultural productivity depends upon its physical, socio-economic environment. A system may have the internal and external environment. For example, the productivity of an industry as a system is affected by both internal and external environment.

2. The Behaviour of a System

It refers to all dynamic activities of a system like the introduction of new stimuli, flows, and responses, inputs, and outputs etc. It studies the flow of energy between the elements of a system and between a system and another system. Functions within a system are called internal behaviour and outside a system is external behaviour. Internal and external behaviours are interlinked. For example, an element of a system is the part of the external environment, change in external environment will bring some behavioural change in one element and change in one element will affect all inter-connected elements of that system. Such behavioural change can be explained by its flow from input (simple stimulus) to the output (response) (Fig.1).

The input-output analysis in economics is a popular example for explaining the flow of behavioural change. Increase in final demands (e.g. derived from exports, home consumption, or another way around) is working as stimuli to rise in final outputs in various sectors in an Indian economy (a system).

3. The State of a System

Each system wants to achieve its state of equilibrium. A slight change in one element of system disturbs its equilibrium. A disturbed system may experience morphogenesis to gain a complex level of equilibrium. ‘Equilibrium’ denotes maintaining a kind of balance in a system. Equilibrium is two categories, viz. stable and dynamic. Further, the stable equilibrium includes both homeostasis and steady states. A homeostatic system shows always activity, but it does not alter the balance between the system’s components. A system in a steady state is also stable, but it may change in an orderly way. Dynamic equilibrium represents a process by which a slight disturbance causes a constant change in throughout the system.

4. Organization and Information in System

Normally system is well organized, that’s why one can predict the possible amount of change in all set of elements of a system if a change occurred to an element is known but such prediction is not possible if the system is not organized. ‘Information’ is considered as ‘the measure of the amount of organization’ (as opposed to randomness) in the system. Good information means well-organized system. In addition, the word ‘entropy’ and ‘negentropy’ are associated with organization and information. Changing level of energy in a system creates a disorder, hence disorganizing the system. In other words, entropy (a measure of unavailable energy) is regarded to be a measure of disorder or disorganization of a system. In the contrary, the negative entropy or negentropy, on the other hand, is a measure of order in a system. The close system may have highest entropy hence making a system inactive. While interacting with the environment, it is good for the open system to have the optimum level of entropy creating a more complex system. As entropy brings disorder and negentropy brings order, these concepts can be used in different branches of geography like an ecosystem, river system, and socio-economic systems.

5. Structure of a System

Structure of a system depends on how element and components of a system are arranged and interlinked. Therefore, the structure may vary in terms of its shape and size. The structure could be hierarchal or parallel. For example, in Walter Christaller’s Central Place Theory, settlements are hierarchal arranged in an urban system. Large urban cities in few number lie at the top of the order and small cities in large number at the bottom (Fig. 2).

Source: Slideplayer.com

Fig. 2

    D. Common Relationships

The links of elements shape components and structure of a system. A different pattern of links between elements forms a variety of relationships, some of the most common relationships are being illustrated through Figure no. 3, 4, 5, 6 to 7.

1. Cause and Effect Relationship: This is the simplest relationship which is also called ‘Series’ relationship in which elements are connected by an irreversible link.

Fig.3: Cause and Effect Relationship

For instance, rainfall affects the rate of soil erosion but soil erosion directly does not have an effect on rainfall.

2. Parallel Relationship: When two elements affect third element making relationship called parallel one. For Example, rainfall and temperature affect vegetation and vegetation, in turn, directly or indirectly affects the amount of rainfall and local temperature.

Fig.4 Parallel Relationship

3. Feedback Relationship: This is newly introduced relationship into analytical structures. Two elements get mutually affected. For example, farmers grow pulses (leguminous plants) which enriches nitrogenous fertilizer in the soil and in turn, production of pulses increases because of enriched soil.

Fig.5 Feedback Relationship

4. Simple Compound Relationship: In a simple compound relationship, components are modified by itself and influenced by a set of other external components. Both processes operate simultaneously. For example, industries in India are removing their old technologies and adapting new foreign technologies to increase low-cost production in the competitive global market.

Fig.6 Simple Compound Relationship:

   5. Complex Compound Relationship

This is the most complex relationship of elements in which elements of the internal and external environment is mutually affected and influences each other. In our environment, all real systems have complex compound relationships amongst their element and complement. Our ecosystem is the best example of a complex compound relationship, which is very difficult to interpret correctly.

Fig.7 Complex Compound Relationship

E.  Classification of Systems

On the basis of above-mentioned relationships, salient features, and characteristics, Systems can be classified as homeostatic, dynamic, self-regulatory, adaptive, controlled systems etc.

1. Homeostatic System: A constant balance maintained in a system is named as a homeostatic system. Such system by its constant operating environment restores its equilibrium or steady-state behaviour if it faces some external interventions. As per its nature, it resists an alternation caused by internal environment but if it faces new change, its processor restores previous equilibrium or steady-state. There are innumerable homeostatic systems in our environment. For example, the human body is a homeostatic system that maintains its equilibrium in its temperature at about 98.2 degrees Celsius. Temporarily, it might change but body again restores equilibrium in its temperature.

Likewise, innumerable geographical systems operating in our environment are known as a homeostatic system which maintains equilibrium or steady-state. The geomorphic cycle of erosion is the homeostatic system. In the cycle of erosion, if any element like the amount of water, slope, suspended particles etc. changes, the entire system gets affected but with certain changes, cycle maintains steady-state.

2. Adaptive System: It is a system which has adaptive capacity to changing external environment. It’s some characteristics are similar to the homeostatic system. This system sustains a constant operating environment to achieve the desired state which has been emerged because of certain change in external environment. For example, our socio-economic systems are becoming adaptive to climate change. New technologies are introduced in agriculture and energy sector in wake of climate change. The direction of the adaptive system depends upon the feedback, it is getting in form of increased or decreased productivity.

3. Dynamic System: It is different from both homeostatic and adaptive systems which experience some change over the period of time in achieving steady or desired states. The dynamic System shows a chain of continuous changes along with a line behaviour in the entire system over the period of time. For example, the vicious cycle of poverty and cumulative causation as Economic growth models.

4. Controlled System: It is a system in which elements or inputs can be regulated to achieve goals (results) for socio-economic development. Normally such kind of system lies in the close environment like laboratories. For example, scientists, doctors, and chemists conduct experiments to assess the impacts of certain chemicals as medicines on animals or human bodies in a controlled environment. In a study of system engineering and cybernetics (the study of communication and control mechanisms in machines and living beings), partially controlled systems are of great importance. Even in geographical subject matters like resource management, regional and economic planning, partially controlled systems can be created and applied. Example, economically backward region can be developed by pushing huge investment in infrastructures hence creating employment opportunities for local people but such environments cannot be completely controlled. Therefore, partially controlled environments are of great importance for human well-being.

In conclusion system approach and its analysis offers a simplified theoretical and conceptual framework to study the subject matters of geography like study of landforms, river system, ecosystem, regional and economic planning and social and economic development etc. Geographers can apply this approach in all three stages of research viz., descriptive, analytical (explanation and seeking governing natural laws and undegrading orders in the real world) and predictive (how existing orders are likely to change in future?).

III . Advantages and Disadvantages

Application of system approach and analysis in geographical studied has various pros and cons. It discloses inherent information on current state, structures and dynamic behaviours of various geographical systems. Our open existing environment is so complex that it goes beyond our understanding. Therefore, system approach simplifies existing environment in order to make it easy for students to understand. In words, it is a technical tool to comprehend interaction between elements of any complex geographical structure in simplified ways. It also helps us to develop a variety of abstract geographical theories. More importantly, its mathematical languages like geometry and probability theory are widely used in solving numerous geographical problems like rising pollution and prediction of climate change and understanding affecting factors. Despite these advantages, this approach is criticised because its overemphasis on positivism and quantification social science (quantitative revolutions) and avoiding normative values (beliefs, attitudes, desires, hopes, fears). Nevertheless, system approach is still relevant in geography.

References

1. Alex, J. Ryan (2008) “What is a systems approach?” Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA, available at https://arxiv.org/abs/0809.1698v1
2. Adhikari, S. (2016), Fundamentals of geographical thought, New Delhi: Orient Black Swan Publications.
3. Berry, B. J. L. (1964) “Cities as systems within systems of cities”, Pap. Regional Science Association, 13: 47-63.
4. Bertalanffy, L. Von (1951) “An outline of general system theory”, Journal of British Philosophy of Science, I: 1-10, 134-65.
5. Chorley, R.J. (1962) “Geography and general systems theory”, Prof. Pap. U.S. Geol. Surv., 500-B.
6. Chorley, R.J. and Haggett, P. (1967) Integrated Models in Geography, Part IV, London: Mathuen and Co. Ltd.
7. Harvey, D. (1969) Explanation in Geography, New Delhi: Arnold Publishers.
8. Husain, M. (2004), Evolution of geographical thought, New Delhi: Rawat Publications.

Web links

1. http://slideplayer.com/slide/8252480/