9 Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in the USA

Dr. Janki Jiwan

Component II – e-Text

I.  Introduction

The Scientific study of geography began in the United States of America in the middle of 19th century and even before the establishment of the British school of Geography. During this period, geographical thinking in this country was dominated by environmental determinism. In last decades of 19th century and early 20th century, Ratzel’s disciple E. C. Semple focused on environmental determinism and pointed out that every action is guided by the environment. Likewise, Huntington also favoured this concept. However, some scholars like Gorge Parkins Marsh (1801-1892) in the 19th century and Isaiah Bowman in the middle of the 20th century were independent thinkers whose influence was maximum on the current geographical thought in the USA. Later Griffith Taylor, who proposed the concept of neo-determinism, wrote on a number themes like human races, nations, cities and human civilization. In the modern period, Carl O. Sauer believed in possibilism and favoured the development of a mechanism for human adjust with the environment. Besides, Arnold Guyot, Richard Hartshorne, William Morris Davis, E. C. Sample, W. W. Atwood, Ellsworth Huntington, A. H. Robinson, C. D. Harris, E. L. Ullman, B. J. L. Berry, J. R. Whitaker, W. Isard, D. S. Whittlesey etc. contributed in developing various disciplinary trends in the USA.

Gorge Parkins Marsh (1801-1892)

He promoted the concept of conservation and wrote a book entitled “Man and Nature” in 1971. This book focused on conservation of nature and discuss the imprints of human actions on the environment.

Arnold Guyot (1807- 1904)

He was Switzerland national who became a prominent professor of Geology and Geography at Princeton University in the USA. He contributed to establishment of American Geographical Society of USA. In addition, he developed concepts of landforms, structure, and process of erosion. His book named The Earth and Man had got a reputation in the Country.

    William Morris Davis (1850-1934)

Davis was the great geographer in the USA who proposed the concept of Geographical Cycle of Erosion. This concept was developed based on his experience from his works in Meteorology and geology. Actually, he was appointed as a professor for general Geology at Harvard University in the USA. Davis was influenced by Darwin’s concept of biological evolution. This concept inspired Devis to propose Geographical Cycle of Erosion. His theory was time oriented and deductive and causative and based on the concept of uniformitarianism proposed by Lyell. In this cycle of erosion, a landform develops gradually in systematic three stages like youth, mature and old in a sequential manner following normal organic life cycle. Existing condition of landforms depends upon the function of its structure, processes, and stages. In the geographical cycle, first of all, a peneplain (featureless plain) is uplifted and after upliftment river begins its erosional process hence the variety of landforms develops depending upon existing rock structure, the intensity of river and stages. German scholars like Alfred Hattner, Walter Penck, Siegfried and Passarge criticised the Geographical Cycle of Erosion on various grounds. Opposing to the Davisian concept, Walter Penck pointed out that geomorphic forms are an expression of the different phases not stages and rate of uplift in relation to the rate of degradation. He assumed that interaction between upliftment and degradation is a continuous process. He criticised Davisian view that erosion process starts only the end upliftment. Further, as per the Penck view, upliftment and erosion proceed simultaneously. According to Penck, landforms, evolution may not complete in stages because of rejuvenation or other factors. However, the concept of stages or time-framework in the formation of landform is still relevant. Further, in contrary to time-dependent theory of Devis, Grove Karl Gilbert proposed time- independent dynamic equilibrium theory explaining the development of various landforms. This theory brought about a methodological shift in geomorphology in the USA.

Ellen Churchill Sample (1863-1932)

Sample was a disciple of Great German Geographer Ratzel. Her influential personality and a firmed believe in environmental determinism had wide impacts on geographical thoughts in the USA. Her first professional book was “American History in Its Geographical Conditions (1903)”. In which she tried to offer a mechanical approach to explain geographical influences on the course of history. The concept of environment determinism has been well explained with numerous examples and illustrations in her second book entitled “Influences of the Geographical environment (1911)”. Explaining her concept of determinism, she pointed out man to be ‘a product of the Earth Surface’, a child of the Earth, the dust of her dust, which has entered into his bone and tissues, into his mind and soul. However, her writings have contradictory principles in explaining environmental determinism.

Albert Perry Brigham (1855-1932)

He was the disciple of Davis and Shaler and a staunch supporter of environmental determinism. He had a pragmatic approach towards geographical influences and control. He further tried to test scientific validity of determinism with empirical generalization. According to his view, generalization can be our goals but the formulation of general theory and law is not possible to prove the concept of determinism.

   Rollin D. Salisbury (1858-1922)

He was a professor at the University of Chicago and rejected the idea of simple causes and effects related to explain physical environment and human responses.

Harlan H. Barrows (1877-1960)

He also rejected the concept of determinism as a paradigm in geography. As per his view, Geography is a study of man’ adjustment to nature or human ecology. Barrow pointed out that geographers should focus on how man are adjusting themselves to their environment. Human beings are free to choose their choices within the limit set by nature. Therefore, he was possibilist.

W. W. Atwood (1872-1949)

He was a professor of Geography who wrote on various themes like physiography and economic geography. His books on “Physiographic Provinces of North America” and “the Rockies Mountain” got wide appreciation in the USA.

Ellsworth Huntington (1876-1947)

He was trained scholar in geology and climatology and later became a professor at Yale University. He had developed his interest in studying impacts of climate on human beings, their activities, and civilizations. He was a prolific writer who authored more than 55 books and above 175 research articles. His main books were “The Pulse of Asia” (1907), Palestine and its Transformation (1911) and Civilization and Climate (1915), Character of Races (1904) and The Main Springs of Civilization (1945). His book entitled “Civilization and Climate” discussed temperature of 21-degree centigrade as ideal conditions for the evolution of civilization. He had taken an isotherm of 21-degree centigrade as an areal limit for the same. As per his view, all human social, economic, cultural activities are guided by the environment. He pointed out that environment not only influenced human bodies and their civilization but their various forms of government, races, religions, education, and others.

Isaiah Bowman (1878-1950)

Bowman was a disciple of W. M. Davis and Physiographer but later he became an assistant professor at Yale University. Being a prolific writer, he wrote several books. His book entitled the “New World: Problems in Political Geography (1921)” discussing the political regions in the world and their associated problems. This book was criticised as a text of American geopolitics. His another work was “the Andes of Southern Peru (1916)” containing physical and human facets of geography based on his field studies. His popular book the “Pioneer Fringe (1931)” covers demarcation of agricultural belts along with the details of regional people and spread of their settlements. In addition, his book titled “Geography in Relation with the Social Science” discussed nature, scope and study methodologies of geography. Under his leadership in American Geographical society, a series of maps on Latin American were prepared and “Geographical Review” became a reputed research journal.

Griffith Taylor (1880-1963)

Taylor was born in Britain and brought up in Australia. He got an education in mining science and geology at Sydney and Cambridge universities. Later he joined as the first professor of Geography at Sydney University. Taylor’s is known for his Antarctica expedition (1910-1913) and has written numerous books. He in his book titled “Australia: Physiographic and Economic Geography” discussed an adverse impact of tropical and dry climate in Australia on progress and spread of human settlement in the region. This writing defamed him in that country. As a result, he left Australia and joined as a professor at Chicago University where he had written a number of books. Some of his popular books are “Racial geography”, “Environment Race and Migration”, “Urban Geography”, and “Geography in 20th Century”. Taylor emphasized the importance of environmental determinism but also accepted the concept of human choices. Therefore, his concept was regarded as scientific determinism.

Derwent S. Whittlesey (1890-1956)

Whittlesey was the professor of Geography at Harvard University. He proposed a concept of ‘Sequent Occupancy’ which means human habitats develops in sequential stages because of changing people’s genre de via (lifestyle) and attitudes not because of changing man and environment relationship. This concept reflected some form of pragmatic determinism. A large number of such studies had been done on the process of human adjustment during the interwar period. In addition, while teaching political geography, he framed the course of political geography on the basis of changing pattern of a map of the contemporary political world.

Carl Ortwin Sauer (1889-1970)

Sauer was the professor at California University at Berkeley. He was basically historical and cultural geographer. His views were influenced by the concept of ‘Kulturlandschaft’ proposed by German geographer Otto Schluter who pointed out that human habitats are developed in places of the interaction of human groups with their environment. Therefore, human transform natural habitat into cultural landscapes. As per his view, man is very active agents in transforming natural habitats. He believed in the human adjustment with nature brought about a new concept of probabilism or present-day determinism. He authored a number of books namely “The Morphology of Landscape (1925)”, “Agricultural Origin and Dispersals (1952)”, “Cultural Geography (1947)” etc.

Besides A. H. Robinson, C. D. Harris, E. L. Ullman, B. J. L. Berry, Richard Hartshorne and W. Isard have contributed to different disciplinary trends in geography. There were twenty-six emerging disciplinary trends in the United States of America. Some of them are Geomorphology, Urban Geography, Regional Concept and Methods, Transport Geography, Industrial Geography, Historical Geography, Resources Geography, Settlement Geography, Agriculture Geography, Climatology, Aerial Photography etc. Some of these disciplinary trends are being discussed as follows:

Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the main branch of geography. W. M. Davis contributed immensely to it by his proposition of Geographical Cycle of Erosions and various associated with concepts of landforms development based on his empirical studies. Besides, in the 20th century, some American natural scientists, geologists and engineers Grove Karl Gilbert, Frank Ahnert, John Hack, Luna Leopold, Arthur Strahler and Ronald Shreve did research on elements of landscape viz., rivers and hillslopes and their quantitative measurements. They developed some methods to predict possible changes in past and future in behaviour of landscapes by observing the present situation. Such methods involving fluid dynamics and solid mechanics, geomorphometry, field measurements and modeling began a trend of highly quantitative approach to geomorphic problems.

Regional Geography

During early decades of the twentieth century, Some American geographers were inclined to British approach to the delimitation of regions. Wesley Powell was one of the first geographers who divided the country into 16 physiographic regions but in 1914, W.L.G. Joerg used the word natural regions for dividing the regions into various small regions based on homogeneity of certain physical characteristics. Besides, N. M. Fenneman also published a study of physiographical divisions of United States in 1914. Further, C. R. Dryer came up with an approach to identify natural regions based on economic functions and natural characteristics. That is why he termed such regions as natural-economic regions. Some decades later Richard Hartshorne popularized the concept of regional paradigm in the United States of America. As per his view, Geography is the study of areal differentiation. Combined functions of geographical elements form a unique regional landscape. There is a difference between different regional landscapes. Such difference in regional landscapes is called areal differentiation. He avoided the study of geographical elements individually as a part of contents in geography. As the view of Hartshorne, geography has a unique methodology to study its region which was criticized by F. K. Schaefer. Schaefer rejected exceptionalism concept and pointed out Geography is a social science on which all scientific laws should apply. Both Hartshorne ‘regional and Schaefer’s systematic approaches to study are relevant to geography because it describes the ways in which geographers have been working. However, by the 1950s geographers gradually disillusioned from the regional paradigm and inclined towards systematic geography.

Systematic Geography

     The publication of the Schaefer’s paper in Annals in 1953 influenced many young geographers in the United States of America and their geography as law seeking or law-making science. Schafer, Ullman, and Ackerman were pioneer geographers believed in a systematic approach. Later Harold Mccarty tried to give theoretical shape to the morphological laws. According to him, each theory has some purposes. Firstly, it finds the causes for a particular pattern of distribution and secondly, it searches for interlinked factors for such distribution. Another scholar W. L. Garrison urged geographers to adopt economic theories for locational analysis because it is very important to know that what determines the spatial arrangement of economic activities. In addition, W. Bunge’s theoretical geography established a scientific credential of geography and rejected the regional paradigm. He favoured the application of descriptive mathematics to make geographical contents more scientific. An astronomer named J. Q. Stewart in 1956 proposed a concept of social physics. According to his view, there is certain social dimension which is quite similar to physical dimensions. For example, social dimensions are like a number of population, distance and time are being illustrated through scientific theories. In addition, B. J. L. Berry and M. F. Dacey contributed to the systematic geography. D. Harvey’ s book named “Explanation in Geography” (1969) gave some conclusive remarks on Schaefer’s concept. Each law must have objectivity and can predict the certain pattern.

Urban Geography

In the view of fast urbanization and rising urban problems, urban geography was an emerging branch in the United States of America.Geographers like Chauncy Dennison Harris and Edward Louis Ullman were some of the pioneer scholars in this field. C. D. Harris (1914 – 2003) worked on urban geography of America. His major books are “The Nature of Cities” ‘and “A Functional Classification of Cities in the United States”. He also worked on urban geography of the Soviet Union during and after the Cold War. He also focused on the geographical study of ethnicity with special reference to non-Russian minorities living within the Soviet Union.

Another urban geographer was Edward Louis Ullman (1912-1976), who was highly influenced by the urban and economic aspects of social science. Along with C. D. Harris, he proposed an economic model popularly known as multiple nuclei model through his famous article “The Nature of Cities” published in 1945. In addition, several geographers contributed significantly to Urban Geography in the USA. Besides, there is a recent trend observed since the 1980s, in which Geographic Information Science (System), using digital processing of large data sets, is being widely used in urban geography in order to make it precise, scientific and illustrative.

Economic geography

Schaefer’s article “Exceptionalism in geography: A Methodological Examination” had significant impacts on younger economic geographers who wanted this branch of geography to be a scientific discipline. Therefore, they focused on quantitative methods in research. Some of the well-known economic geographers of this period were William Garrison, Brian Berry, Peter Haggett and William Bunge. In addition, geographer like W. Isard worked on Economic Geography for making it a regional science. Some of his publications are “Location and Space Economy (1956)”, “Industrial Complex Analysis and Regional Development (1959)”, and “Methods of Regional Analysis (1960)”. Besides, Edward Louis Ullman (1912-1976) was interested in working on trade relationships. According to his view, trade interaction between two regions depends upon three phenomena: complementarity, intervening opportunities, and transferability of commodities.

Human Ecology

Human Ecology has been an important topic for American Geographers. As discussed earlier, Barrows pointed out that Geography is a study of human ecology (man’ adjustment to nature).

Chorology

Mark Jefferson and Carl O. Sauer supported the concept of Chorology aiming at studying observable physical and cultural characteristics of a place. There is the difference in these characteristics between two places.

Historical Geography

American focused on human adjustment to nature. Historical geographer Ralph Hall Brown (1898–1948) wrote “Mirror of Americans and Historical Geography in the United States” explaining geographical change during the development of human settlement in America. In addition, Carl O. Sauer studied pre-historical red Indian frontier settlement in Pacific coast of Mexico. Even D. Whittlesey brought about “Sequence Occupancy” as the antithesis to environmental determinism explaining sequence change in the development of society and lifestyle of people living in.

Current Trends in Geography

Now geographers in America are more inclined to develop interdisciplinary approach to study human, social, economic and cultural geography than physical geography. Besides, three common trends are observed recently. Scholars in this country use ideas of positivism, humanism, and realism in the scientific description of geographical phenomena. Geographers now use the language of mathematics, statistical tools and quantitative techniques in the analysis of regional science like size and spacing of urban centers, transport network, commodity flow and crops distribution etc. In recent decades, geographers widely use remote sensing data and computer-based GIS software in the analysis of complex geographical phenomena.

References

1. Adhikari, S. 2016. Fundamentals of Geographical Thought, New Delhi: Orient Black Swan Publications.
2. E. C. Semple. 1911. Influences of Geographic Environment, New York, Henry Bolt.
3. Harvey, D. 1969. Explanation in Geography, London, Edward Arnold.
4. Husain, M. 2004. Evolution of Geographical Thought, New Delhi: Rawat Publications.
5. Preston E. J. & G. J. Martin.1972. All Possible Worlds: A History of Geographical Ideas, Second Edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons.
6. Richard Peet. 1998. Modern Geographical Thought, New Jersey, Wiley-Blackwell.
7. Sauer C. O. 1925. The Morphology of Landscape, University of California Publication, California
8. Whittlesey, D. 1929. Sequence Occupation, Annals, Association of American Geographers.