34 Applied Geography

Mr. Joydeep Saha

I-   Introduction

As new university departments started to offer courses on geography, a certain number of professionals became graduate during 1920s and 1930s. In fact, the genesis of ‘applied geography’ can be traced back to the inquisitive mind of young geographers, who wanted to apply their training of geography into some issues that have practical utility. They were eager to minimize problems in society. On this front, the training seemed little helpful, as a fieldwork in small areas for obtaining a formal degree had certain limitations. They were not interested to undertake theoretical studies also. In such a context, since Word War-I to 1950s, a number of geographical works have sprouted, and this “wide variety of studies in what might be called applied geography, in the sense that the purpose was to provide the basis for planning remedial action” (Martin: 449, 2005). This term ‘applied geography’ was not common, as two books titled ‘Applied Geography: A Preliminary Sketch’ and ‘An Introduction to Applied Geography’, appeared as early as in 1890 (2nd edition in 1908) and 1921, respectively. A. J. Herbertson (1899) defined ‘applied geography’ as “a special way of looking at geography, a limitation and a specialization of the study of it from one point of view. For the businessman, this point of view is an economic one, for the medical man a climatic and demographic one, for the missionary an ethic and an ethical one” (Pacione: 3, 1999). As the research works within this bracket of ‘applied geography’ were not restricted to university curriculum and dealt with real-world problems, Hart’s (1989) definition seems more suitable:“the synthesis of existing geographic knowledge and principles to serve the specific needs of a particular client, usually a business or government agency” (ibid.). Torrieri and Ratcliffe (1904) list few themes of applied research: market and location analysis, medical geography, land use planning, environmental issues and policy, transportation planning and routing, the geography of crime and so on. Leisure geography (i.e. recreation, tourism, and sport) is also gaining prominence nowadays. Besides, applied works in geomorphology and climatology are also becoming popular.

II- “Applied” Geography or “Pure” Geography

A debate that occurred in the 1980s was concerned about the changing nature of “pure” and “applied” geography. This debate, like any other disciplines also, was not something uncommon. On the one hand, geography was required to given an academic or intellectual space, whereas the practical usefulness of geography in society and economy had to be proved on the other hand. Pure or traditional geography promotes theoretical understanding of the relationship between human being and nature and applied geographers borrow these ideas to resolve socio-economic problems from a spatial perspective.While “pure” geography is more concerned with theories and methods, “applied” geography is attached with a resolution of socio-economic problems. During the age of imperialism, geography was an important tool of nationalism and imperialism. Regional synthesis and spatial analysis, being two strong methodological grounds, propelled geography as an academic discipline. But during the period in between two World Wars, geography had to justify its usefulness, otherwise, government was not ready to spend public money on it amid economic depression. Although traditional geography was very much prominent, the axis of academic orientation gradually tilted towards applied geography during the 1980s. Application of techniques, like Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System, became quite important. Application of such specialized techniques actually took applied geography further away from traditional geography. Pacione (ibid.) argued that the core of applied geography lies in the issues of “usefulness of geographical research and the relationship between theory and practice.” R. A. Rundstrom and M. S. Kenzer felt that “academic core” of geography was eroded, as students rather than thinking critically started working for specifically serving business firms and government agencies. Students learned about a few specific skills that are required for satisfying clients. One has to understand, at this point, why such debates happened in the 1980s, as the undercurrent was always there as illustrated in following sections-

III- Evolution of Applied Geography: A Global Profile

Professional geographers made significant contributions when U.S.A took part in World War-I and II. Some of the notable contributions are outlined as:

Skilled geographers helped U.S. administration in commodity studies. When the Division of Planning and Statistics of the U.S. Shipping Board was given the assignment to conduct a survey of imports in 1917, the need of prioritization and categorization was immediately felt amid a shortage of ships. There were some very important items for warfare, which had to be entirely imported, whereas there were items that did not have a military or civilian use. Walter S. Tower, a geographer from Chicago, joined this work, as he had a sound knowledge of the geography of commerce. Other geographers like Vernor C. Finch, William H. Haas, George B. Roorbach and Charles C. Colby also took part in it. These scholars helped U.S. Shipping Board a lot by summarizing long intelligence reports. As the skill and knowledge of geographers in commodity studies got widely known, another Division of Planning and Statistics was established in the War Trade Board. Famous geographer Harlan H. Barrows was the head of this research unit, and other staff members included J. Russell Smith, Ray H. Whitbeck, and Nels A. Bengston.

For the Paris Peace Conference, a set of collection of information was required, because delineation of the political boundary was never an easy task. To conduct this research work, a team was formed which had about 150 members. The team, known as ‘The Inquiry’, included historians,  journalists,  geographers, economists and other area specialists.  Their research content was considerably wider, from international law, diplomatic and political history of Europe, to geographic analysis of problem areas like territorial water and frontier zones, physiographic setting, economic geography and many more. As a part of this research work, detailed maps were required. Therefore, the importance of cartography was strongly felt. Base maps, at the scale of 1:100,000 or 1:300,000 were prepared, which showed political  boundaries, urban areas,  drainage system, roadways, and railways. There were also critical areas, for which block diagrams were prepared. Such diagrams had a geological structure on the sides and the terrain on the surface. On the base maps, a set of information like population density, ethnic composition, agricultural and mineral resource inventory and many other things were displayed. All these proceedings happened under the guidance of Isaiah Bowman. Other geographers, who had actively participated in this work, included Mark Jefferson, Bailey Willis, H. L. Shantz, C. F. Marbut and J. Warren Smith.

In the Paris Peace Conference, “map” became the point of discussion. The delegates of other countries continuously consulted these maps, as they embarked upon the exercise of settling political boundaries in central Europe. In fact, in this conference, it was felt that “One map is worth ten thousand words” (Martin, 2005: 453).

In the wake of all these events, Bowman published a book on political geography: The New World (1921) which discussed specific problems of particular regions, with a description of local setting and historical evolution in detail. Shantz and Marbut published a monograph on vegetation and soils of Africa. D.W. Johnson’s work (1921) on military strategy and tactics in association with terrain characteristics contributed a lot in military geography.

Bowman’s proposal to American Geographical Society in developing maps for Hispanic America at 1:100,000 scale got sanctioned. Under this project, a number of field studies were conducted, and the research reports were published. Due to this project, the Hispanic America Map was completed in 1946. It contributed a lot to the Millionth Map of the World, constructed in conformity with international standards, which was originally proposed by Albert Penck and Raye R. Platt. These maps helped to settle boundary disputes between countries, for example, Chile and Peru in 1929, Colombia and Venezuela in 1933.

One of the applications of geography is in the areas of land quality and land use related studies. Looking at the example of Michigan Land Economic Survey (1922), one can trace how geographers can play a significant role in land use planning. The north country of Michigan experienced unrestricted lumbering, and subsequent forest fire after long dry periods when high-speed wind blew off. As a result, a considerable number of trees were destroyed and the soil became infertile. Poor quality of sandy soil and a short growing season could not support agricultural activities also. In such a context, Carl O’ Sauer and William D. Jones made an initiative to explore diversified land quality characteristics of the north country. They also received a good support from Parish S. Lovejoy, who was a forester and naturalist by profession. As the need for a land survey was imminent, the State Department of Conservation, U.S. Department of Agriculture, University of Michigan and the Michigan Agricultural College started to operationalize the project. The objective of the survey was to create a detailed inventory of land use so that plans can be formulated. This survey was known for its contribution towards “unit area” method, and associated soil type. The survey began with compass and notebook as used by soil experts, foresters, and graduate students of geography from the University of Michigan. According to L. R. Schoemann, the results of this survey could be used for local zoning rules for rural areas also. This survey proved the effective capability of geographers in delineating areal associations and analyzing diverse processes.

    Continuing the legacy of this survey, G. Donald Hudson contributed in making land use inventory of the Tennessee Valley. Puerto Rico Rural Land Classification Programme (1949-1951) also attempted to formulate economic plans, after surveying and creating a detailed inventory of resources. Hudson, along with Rafael Pico and Clarence F. Jones, carried out this study. Similar kind of research works was also conducted in Chile and Brazil. Other geographers contributed in making an inventory of scenic resources and economic base of urban centres. The evolution and development of Remote Sensing techniques have helped a lot in this kind of studies.

Trained and experienced geographers were working in different kinds of works. Some worked in Research and Analysis Wing Branch of the Office of Strategic Services, War Department, Intelligence Division and other offices. Compilation of detailed information on countries and regions was the primary task, which helped planning military operations. Joint Army-Navy Intelligence Studies (JANIS), for example, brought together many background research reports. Some geographers helped the troops in analyzing terrain conditions of battlefields. One group of geographers were specialized in transport studies, who focused on the conditions of transportation routes and facilities. Very few geographers were also the experts of foreign countries – who could analyze the potential strength and weakness. Isaiah Bowman also formed a team to research upon the feasibility of setting refugee settlements across different areas of the world.

Marketing research for private business firms was another area. For these firms, the location of retail outlets was pretty important. To illustrate, William Applebaum’s thesis was on secondary commercial centres of Cincinnati. He helped the Kroger Company in choosing the best sites for planned supermarkets. In fact, geographer’s training in making and using detailed maps helped them to contribute in market research departments of different  business  firms.  This  was  reflected  when  a  famous  journal  i.e.  Economic Geography published its entire volume 37 in 1961 with papers that focused on  the location of voluntary food chains, planned shopping centres, department stores, retail shopping centers. Thus, marketing geography became a core theme of applied geography.

Other geographical studies were also significant. C. W. Thornthwaite did a very good research work through applying his expertise of climatology and other attributes of the physical environment to the Dairy Industry of New Jersey. M. I. Glassner acted as a consultant to the United Nations Development Programme for the land-locked countries of Asia.

In Britain, an important work titled as Land of Britain: Its Use and Misuse written by L. D. Stamp got published in 1948. This famous research work focused on the relationship between human beings and nature, and thereby showed the holistic approach that a geographer uniquely possesses. Following the ideas put forward by Patrick Geddes, this work emphasized that field survey, systematic and objective collection of data, and cartographic representation, and further analysis are the main pillars of land use planning. Stamp felt that such a study could solve problems like population pressure on land, and inequalities in the standard of living.

In Germany, the transformation of political geography into geopolitics happened due to state’s particular requirements. The training and skills acquired by geographers were used to solve political-territorial problems. In France, the role of geographers in comprehensive planning was observed during the 1960s and 1970s. In Russia, geographers like A.I. Voeikov and V.V. Dokuchaiev contributed a lot. While the first one recognized the ill effects of human use of land, the second one made a systematic study on soil forming processes, soil zones, and problem-oriented analysis. The State Planning Commission (GOSPLAN), which was set up in 1921, divided the Soviet Union into 21 economic regions. Geographers like L. L. Niktin were given the task of make detailed studies on these regions, by analyzing population and resource characteristics. Russian geographers were also interested in regional development. N.N. Kolosovskiy’s work on the planning of the great Ural-Kuznatsk Industrial Combine was considered an important contribution.

India could not achieve a sound recognition in terms of applied geographical research. In the bracket of social sciences, Economics has considered way ahead than other disciplines in terms of solving socio-economic problems. But it should also be noted that K. V. Sundaram – L. S. Bhatt – V. L.S. Prakasa Rao – Moonis Raza – C. R. Pathak and few others contributed significantly in developing theoretical aspects of applied geography, especially in regional development.

IV- Progress of Applied Geography:

Due to all such developments, at least in U.S.A., a growing number of departments have turned their attention towards applied geography. Geographical Review decided to add a new section on applied research in 1976. The A.A.G. Newsletter and Professional Geographer also did the same. The Applied Geography Newsletter and the international journal Applied Geography started publishing papers since 1980. J. Frazier and B.J. Epstein co-founded the Applied Geography Conferences(A.G.C.) at Binghamton State University in New York (1978). Participants belonging to the government, business firms and academia participate in such conferences and publish relevant papers. Since 2015, this body of geographers hosts and publishes a journal titled as Papers in Applied Geography. Applied geography became one of the strongest Specialty Groups of AAG in terms of a number of members. Moreover, Applied Geography became a Study group, and subsequently a Commission in the International Geographical Union (I.G.U.) in 2003.

Apart from this, the practical interplay between academia and government policy mattered a lot. Geographical research studies required funds, often from government agencies. Added to this, only a small share of undergraduate students was selecting geography in U.S.A. Therefore, an idea was mooted in A.A.G. that geography departments should teach applied courses so that passed-out undergraduate students could be employed in planning and marketing agencies. In the United Kingdom also, as a response towards economic recession, higher education policy advocated universities to impart more vocational and professional training to students and created a pressure on universities to cover institutional costs through earnings made out of research consultancy.

It should be noted that capitalistic setting in U.S.A. employed a number of geographers in the private sector. But, in socialist countries of eastern Europe and the erstwhile USSR, the research works of geographers was directed by the state, and it mooted the idea of solving socio-economic problems. Therefore, the volume of applied research in geography was greater in such countries as compared to the capitalistic ones.

V- Critical Overview:

As Martin (2005: 470) observes, applied geography “does not have a theoretical core nor a coherent structure”. Applied geographical studies thrive upon the demands put forward by clients, and the problems of study could range anything between the location of retail supermarkets and daylight saving time. Such studies are often project-based and are having an ad hoc nature of employment. The knowledge and skill of geographers, therefore, become a commodity that has a value in the market. RS and GIS consultancy firms employing experts may be regarded as a relevant example. Stoddart (1987) criticizes applied geography on the ground that it deals with ‘trivial issues’, and does not focus on the broader issue of people-environment relationship.

On the positive side, applied geography opens a window for the geographers to interact with practitioners of other natural and social sciences. Although a significant chunk of geographers is engaged in collecting and synthesizing relevant spatial information, their contribution in policy making is not very prominent, and this is possibly due to “the small number of geographers both in the university administrative structure and the political structure of most developed societies” (ibid.). Nonetheless, as the opportunity is still wide open, geographers can contribute to policy-making in due course of time.

In short, it is observed that “pure” and “applied” geography are two sides of the same coin. While theories and methods derived through academic discussions in “pure” geography put forward a broad spatial conceptual framework, the practitioners of “applied” geography use tools and techniques to solve real-world problems within this framework. In that way, applied geographers are more engaged with post-analysis implementation and monitoring stage of projects, which are implemented through their recommendations.

References 

• • Adhikari, Sudeepta (2011), Fundamentals of Geographical Thought, Chaitanya Publishing House, Allahabad
  • Bailly A and L J Gibson (2013), Applied Geography: A World Perspective, Springer Science and Business Media
  • Gregory D, R Johnston, G Pratt, M Watts and S Whatmore (2009): Dictionary of Human Geography, Wiley Blackwell
  • Husain, Majid (2010), Evolution of Geographical Thought, Rawat Publications, New Delhi Martin, Geoffrey J. (2005), All Possible Worlds: A History of Geographical Ideas, Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford
  • Pacione, Michael (1999), Applied Geography: Principles and Practice, Psychology Press