15 Natural Resources for Livelihood: Global, Regional & Local (1)
Dr. Mohammed Baber Ali
Learning Objectives:
After studying this unit you should be able to:
- Understand Marine Resources, their Utility and the
- Classification of Marine Resources.
- Learn about some of the popular Mariculture around the World.
Production and Distribution of World Fisheries. Indian Marine Fishery Infrastructure Scenario. Production and Distribution of Indian Fisheries.
1 Introduction: The stable and better buffered marine environment against environmental changes contains mammoth biodiversity. It has immense capacity to feed the teeming population of the world with seafood supplies of vegetarian and non vegetarian genre. The fast energy driven economy of today’s world has to fall back on the ocean for the ever increasing demand of energy which terrestrial sources can hardly meet forever. The global consumption of energy since 1970s is likely to increase by 1/3 by 2035 according to the International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris. Due to extreme weather the global food security is already in jeopardy therefore biofuel from food crops may have repercussions in the food demand-supply equation. Therefore, the enormous nonrenewable energy resource base of marine environment has to be harnessed. However, the mineral mining from the ocean will speed up only when the terrestrial sources will dry up. In short, there is huge untapped marine resources such as; fish and numerous sea foods, oil and gas, metallic and non metallic minerals, sand and gravels, renewable energy resources, tourism, etc.
2 Definition: The things which satisfy the human needs and are sourced from ocean are to be called marine resources. They include materials and attributes found in the ocean having intrinsic or monetary value for us. The plants which originate in the ocean and the organisms which thrive in the ocean make ocean biodiversity, from which we extract fish and myriads of seafood for our use or as animal feed. Several birds and terrestrial mammals derive their food from the ocean which we hunt for food and industrial purposes.
The marine resources can be simply classified as the biological, physical and energy resources. Biological resources include the living organisms which are used as food and the chemicals/products they secret. Fishes, shells, mollusks, seaweeds, algae and the chemicals produced by the marine organisms form the biological resources. Physical resources include the materials which are derived from the ocean and the ocean floor. Various minerals including oil and gas, gravels, sand, salt etc., make the physical resources. Ocean is the source of both renewable and non renewable energy resources. The largest formations of hydrocarbon on the planet earth is not that of coal or petroleum but the methane laced ice crystals which is found in the sediments of some continental slope. Renewable energy can be extracted from the heat or motion attributes of the ocean water. Even along the coasts the high velocity of wind is used to run wind turbine generating electricity is also attributed to the marine environment. Ocean water itself is a source of fresh water after desalinization and is used as coolant in metallurgical factories and power plants
(http://www.marinebio.net/marinescience /06future/olres.htm and http://www.thomson edu.com/earth science/garrison).
Classifications and Utility: The marine resources can be clubbed in two groups as per their utility. First, what we use in day today life and the second is the things which maintain the life support system of the planet earth. The first consist the material goods as the ‘provisioning services’ by ocean and the second is the ‘supporting and the regulating services’. In other words while the former is of economic nature the later is of ecological nature.
Table 1: Marine Resources as Services
PROVISIONING SERVICES:
Fisheries: They include the finfish, such as salmon sardine, blue ling, grenadier and redfish, and the shellfish; such as oysters, mussels, crabs and lobsters.
Oil: The petroleum is extracted from offshore areas(Figure4.7.1).
Gas: Like petroleum it also has wide range of uses such as fuel for motors, central heating, cooking, plastic and chemical production, food-processing, etc.
Minerals: Manganese nodules of the abyssal plains are not only the source of manganese but rich concentrates of multiple valuable minerals such as gold, nickel, cobalt, copper and zinc.
Drugs and Bioproducts: Chemical compounds derived from various organisms such as; fishes, algae, sponge, weeds, etc. make medicines and cosmetics.
Sand and Gravel: Although not very glamorous like hydrocarbons, in terms of value it is second only to hydrocarbons.
Renewable Energy: Marine heat differences, waves, current, tides and ocean driven high velocity perennial wind flow are harnessed for renewable energy in the form of electricity.
Figure 1: An Off shore Petroleum Mining Station.
Source: World Ocean Review 1
SUPPORTING AND REGULATING SERVICES:
Marine Tourism: Tourism is the fast growing industry generating employment and currency in the host country. Water sports such as scuba diving, surfing, sailing, jet-skiing; and leisurely whale watching and fishing are the common attractions for tourists.
Waste Disposal, Absorption and Detoxification: Waste absorption and detoxification are important regulating services as marine organisms store, bury and transform many waste materials through assimilation and chemical transformation, either directly or indirectly.
Prospect of CO2 Storage Sites: Scientists are working on the idea, to capture and store carbon dioxide as liquid or solid under the sea, to mitigate the climate change.
Habitats: Marine habitats with rich coral reefs support biodiversity which allow us to harness the fishes in abundance and make tourist spots.
Nutrient Cycling: Nutrient cycling is the storage and maintenance of nutrients by living organisms.
Water Circulation and Exchange: Water that comes up from the deep ocean (through upwelling) tends to be nutrient and oxygen-rich, and these “upwelling zones” are associated with high productivity of fisheries.
Gas and Climate Regulation: Through the natural carbon sequestration and storage process, it also provides the climate regulation service (http://www.eu-hermione.net/learning/ocean-resources).
3: World Marine Resources: Around a third of the oil and gas extracted worldwide comes from offshore sources. A unique combination of high-quality protein and vital nutrients make fish an invaluable food. It is the most important protein source in many developing countries. Fish consumption is highest in China as well as in western industrialized countries. About 90 per cent of the global fishery activity occurs in coastal waters. They are the place where more than 45 per cent of the world’s population lives. About 75 per cent of the mega-cities with populations over ten million are located in the coastal areas. The Global shipping provides a dynamic world market wherein; tankers, bulk carriers and container ships leave behind the other means of world transportation. Especially the containerization has revolutionized the global cargo shipping (World Ocean Review, 1&2).
3.1: World Distribution of Minerals: Methane hydrates are solid ice-like compounds found on the ocean floor. Experts believe they contain 10 times more gas than is available in all the conventional deposits. Metals are found mainly in three types of mineral deposits: manganese nodules, cobalt crusts, and massive sulphides. The manganese nodules can be of the size of a potato. There are four major areas of manganese nodules worldwide, the largest being the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the Pacific in an area equivalent to the size of Europe. Massive sulphides are of interest because they contain high levels of gold and silver. The deposits in the Bismarck Sea near Papua New Guinea appear to offer great potential
(http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans/high-level-objectives/ecosystem-health/#topPage).
3.2: World Distribution of Fishes: The world fish capture production in 2015 recorded 81.16 million tonnes which was largely marine capture accounting 86.69 per cent. The spatial pattern of the catch distribution is concentrated in the Pacific Northwest and the Pacific Western Central amounting 34 million tonnes. Beyond Pacific it is the Atlantic Northeast reporting high catches of 9 million tonnes. The Indian Ocean shown 11 million tonnes of marine fish catches during the same year of 2015(Table 4.7. 2).
Table 2: World Marine Fish Production by Oceans, 2015
(In Tonnes)
| Fishing Areas | 2015 |
| Atlantic, Northwest | 1,842,608 |
| Atlantic, Northeast | 9,137,549 |
| Atlantic, Western Central | 1,412,556 |
| Atlantic, Eastern Central | 4,342,492[1] |
| Mediterranean and Black | 1,312,920 |
| Sea | |
| Atlantic, Southwest | 2,427,725 |
| Atlantic, Southeast | 1,680,827 |
| Indian Ocean, Western | 4,659,209 |
| Indian Ocean, Eastern | 6,358,707 |
| Pacific, Northwest | 22,050,596 |
| Pacific, Northeast | 3,164,604 |
| Pacific, Western Central | 12,581,999 |
| Pacific, Eastern Central | 1,695,331 |
| Pacific, Southwest | 550,933 |
| Pacific, Southeast | 7,702,987 |
| Arctic and Antarctic areas | 243,642 |
| World total | 81,163,685 |
Source: FAO, 2017
In country wise distribution pattern China dominates with a reported marine fish catches of 1.53 billion tonnes which accounted 18.87 per cent of the world catches in 2015.Indonesia is the other country from Asia surpassing the USA.80.1 per cent of the world marine catches reported from only 23 listed major countries(Table 4.7.3).
Table 3: World Marine Fish Production, Major Countries, 2015
(In Tonnes)
| Countries | 2015 |
| China | 15,314,000 |
| Indonesia | 6,028,260 |
| United States of America | 5,019,399 |
| Peru | 4,786,551 |
| Russian Federation | 4,172,073 |
| India | 3,497,284 |
| Japan | 3,427,300 |
| Viet Nam | 2,607,214 |
| Norway | 2,293,290 |
| Philippines | 1,948,136 |
| Chile | 1,786,633 |
| Korea, Republic of | 1,639,860 |
| Thailand | 1,496,450 |
| Malaysia | 1,486,050 |
| Morocco | 1,349,637 |
| Iceland | 1,317,148 |
| Mexico | 1,315,787 |
| Myanmar | 1,090,060F |
| Taiwan (Province of China) | 1 987,767 |
| Spain | 967,240 |
| Denmark | 868,892 |
| Canada | 823,155 |
| Argentina | 795,415 |
| Total of 23 Major Countries | 65,017,601 |
| Total of Other 172 Countries | 16,147,084 |
| World Total | 81,164,685 |
| Share % of 23 Major countries 2017 | 80.1% |
F= FAO Estimate Source: FAO,
3.3: Mariculture as Livelihood: It is not just that the marine resources are harnessed but also by several ways in controlled marine environment plant or animal of our choice are cultivated. With the rise in technology and entrepreneurs coming forward to invest as an industry has seen expansion in the mariculture across the world, although they have to lock horns with the green laws and lobbyist. In Central California till 1960’s since 1860 seaweed was cultivated along the coast line on the cliffs. In India seaweed is mainly produced in the east coast (Palk Bay) and on the intertidal and sub tidal regions of Gujrat. In 2009, the production was 865tonnes of dry weight. Abalone, as sea food, shellfish is farmed along the Sanfrancisco coast since 1968. The baby oysters are placed in perforated trays hanging in the water until they grow to maturity. Lobster is grown in clean and food rich marine water in hatcheries hung into the water by buoys(Figure4.7.2).
Figure 3.2: Aquaculture of fish in the Chinese island of Hainan
Source: World Ocean Review 1
3.4: Marine Livelihood Dependence: The population living in the contiguous area along the coast that is less than 10 meters above sea level low elevation coastal zone (LECZ) are dependent most for their livelihood on the marine resources. The UN compiled data on this aspect reveal the fact that smaller, insular and mostly developing countries make the list when it included only the countries having at least 1/3 dependence of population from this zone. Altogether 29 countries reported their population in the LECZ depending solely on fishing and fishing related operations, aquaculture, mariculture, industry workers in marine based factories ,marine transportations, recreaction,etc. Maldives is the only country reporting cent per cent population having marine employment support. Since higher dependence reported from the developing poor countries it could be said safely that it is marine matters most in the life of poor. The labour intensive employment generation by ocean has supported high population density all around the world in smaller economies all along sea coasts. However, India reported poorly in this regard with a population share of respectively; 10.46, 4.48 and 6.72 per cent for urban, rural and total population in 2000 (Table 4.7.4).
Table.4: Population in LCEZ for Marine Dependence Percentage Level for the Countries with more than 33% Dependency
|
2000
|
|||
| Countries | Urban | Rural | Total |
| Anguilla | 50.43 | 77.42 | 53.37 |
| Aruba | 30.44 | 64.92 | 33.21 |
| Bahamas | 86.66 | 91.81 | 87.63 |
| Bahrain | 75.72 | 99.70 | 77.42 |
| Bangladesh | 50.27 | 44.20 | 45.56 |
| Belize | 64.20 | 23.65 | 40.33 |
| Bermuda | 70.27 | 74.09 | 71.17 |
| British Virgin Islands | 42.06 | 79.13 | 58.24 |
| Cayman Islands | 97.85 | 88.89 | 96.49 |
| China, Macao SAR | 48.71 | 92.24 | 59.41 |
| Cook Islands | 41.25 | 43.48 | 42.38 |
| Greenland | 67.84 | 49.80 | 55.84 |
| Guyana | 92.56 | 33.86 | 54.63 |
| Latvia | 44.04 | 14.38 | 33.65 |
| Maldives | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |
| Marshall Islands | 100.00 | 99.68 | 99.78 |
| Monaco | 77.94 | 36.43 | 72.70 |
| Nauru | 35.58 | 78.81 | 41.98 |
| Netherlands | 75.73 | 64.07 | 73.90 |
| Northern Mariana Islands | 46.68 | 49.06 | 47.15 |
| Palau | 64.80 | 33.18 | 51.50 |
| Qatar | 32.18 | 42.29 | 33.10 |
| Saint Pierre and Miquelon | 60.24 | 60.70 | 60.33 |
| Suriname | 98.15 | 22.38 | 76.16 |
| Tonga | 47.00 | 38.45 | 42.95 |
| Turks and Caicos Islands2 | … | 90.06 | 90.06 |
| Tuvalu2 | … | 99.50 | 99.50 |
| Viet Nam | 73.90 | 49.71 | 55.10 |
| Wallis and Futuna Islands2 | … | 64.04 | 64.04 |
Source: United Nation Statistical Division, https://unstats.un.org/ unsd/ environment/ProportionPopulationCoastalZones.htm
4: Marine Resources in India: According to FAO, India was the 2nd largest producer of fish (including the marine fishes) with an export value of 30,213 crores during 2013-14. Accrding to the Ministry of Agriculture, GOI with an EEZ of 2.02 million sq.km she has been continuously harnessing its vast potential which is indicated in the fact that from 0.75 million tonnes in 1950-51, the fish catch reached to 9.58 million tonnes (of which marine fish accounted 36%) in 2013-14.
Figure 3: Indigenous ways of Fishing
Sources: World Ocean Review4 and FAO, India, 2005
4.1: Marine Resources Infrastructure in India: The only subcontinent in the world, India opens into ocean in three sides. This entails her to harness the huge potential of marine resources in the large aquatic territory under its command. With the coastline of 8,129 km, the EEZ of 2.03million sq.kms, the continental shelf of 0.506million sq. km and the Brackish water spreading in 1.2million ha, the prospect of fishing is enormous. This has resulted over the years a huge army of manpower well spread in over 3600 fishing villages to harness the marine fishes.
The table 4.7.5 provides in brief the marine resource scenario especially for fishing. The east coast account larger EEZ than the west coast. During 2013-14 the marine fish accounted 36 per cent of the total production. In the light of saturation in inland fishing there lies opportunity galore to expand the marine fishing drive. India has 9 maritime states and 2 island territories. The West Coast is 2/3 times more productive than the East Coast (Figure 4.7.4).
Table 5: Marine Resource Scenario of India at a Glance
Source: Handbook on Fisheries Statistics, 2014
Figure 4: India: Coastal Eco Regions/EEZ
Source: Present and Future Scenario of Indian Marine Fisheries
In 2010, the country reported a total of 1537 landing centres for handling of marine fish. The fishing folk of 40,56,213 living in 3432 fishing villages were having 874749 fisher families. In Tamil Nadu 2 lac fisher families comprising 8 lac members earn livelihood in fishing, while highest coastline endowed Gujrat leads in production with however lesser engagement of manpower about 3 lac.Indian law regulates the fishing calendar and the designated distance from the coast within which only the non mechanized boat having fisher man will operate. This is done for ensuring the livelihood of the traditional fisherman. In the East Coast from 15April to 14 June and in the west coast between 1 June and 31 July for 61 days fishing is not allowed.
Figure 5: Indigenous ways of Fishing
Source: Handbook on Fisheries Statistics, 2014
Marine Fish Production and Distribution in India: The marine fishery of India is on the rise which is shown by the data for 2005-6 and 2013-14(provisional data).Between this period the production rose by 22.27 per cent from 2816.05 to 3443.11 thousand tonnes. Among all the marine states two states Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka recorded the highest 100 per cent jump in catches. At the same time two states of Kerala and Odisha have faltered too with however, slight downsized catches (Table 4.7.6).From the top producer of Gujarat to Goa the production show almost uniform step down. The 4 Union Territories make small contributions (Figure 4.7.6)
Table: 6: Marine Fish Production by States and UTs
| States/UTs | 2005-6 | 2013-14 (P) |
| Gujrat | 663.88 | 695.58 |
| Kerala | 558.91 | 522.31 |
| Maharashtra | 445.34 | 467.46 |
| Tamil Nadu | 307.99 | 432.27 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 218.84 | 438.25 |
| Karnataka | 176.97 | 357.36 |
| West Bengal | 160.00 | 188.24 |
| Odisha | 122.21 | 120.02 |
| Goa | 100.91 | 109.57 |
| Puduchery | 19.27 | 37.81 |
| Andaman& Nicobar | 12.05 | 36.75 |
| Daman& Diu | 17.72 | 18.78 |
| Lakshdweep | 11.96 | 18.72 |
| INDIA | 2816.05 | 3443.11 |
(In 000, Tonnes)
Source: Handbook on Fisheries Statistics, 2014
Figure 6: Ranking of States in Marine Fish Production
Source: Handbook on Fisheries Statistics, 2014
Brackish Water based Livelihood: In India it is in practice for long in bheries (manmade impoundments in coastal wetlands) of West Bengal and pokkali (salt resistant deepwater paddy) fields along the Kerala coast. Tidal water with all assorted fish and shrimp seed is allowed to enter through sluice-gates during spring tides and during spring tides they are trapped near the sluice gates. Brackish water aquaculture in India is concentrated around the giant tiger prawn as the single most important species.
Mariculture in India: It is limited to the farming of mussels and edible oysters undertaken in some coastal region of Kerala over the years. Further like tissue culture of marine pearls, hatchery techniques for lobsters and ornamental fishes have shown great potential in expanding the marine livelihood base of the country. The commercial production of oysters in India started during the late nineties which reached to 2400 tonnes in 2008. (FAO, 2005).
FUTURE AHEAD AND THE GAP:
The United Nation proposed 2021-2030 as “The International Decade of Ocean Science”. This is for there is no internationally-agreed methodology for estimating the economic value of services the ocean provides to humankind. Science is yet to meaningfully evaluate the cumulative impacts of climate change, marine pollution and other anthropogenic stresses on the health of the ocean ecosystem.99% of habitable marine areas are yet to be covered for the basic biodiversity knowledge we require for effective management. Till now we have mapped only 5% of the ocean floor and of which only 1% has been gridded at high resolution.
In India Fishery Survey of India (FSI) is the nodal fishery Institute which generates statistics. National Institute of Oceanography, Goa is the apex scientific body for the advancement in the field.
SUMMARY:
The biological diversity and the mammoth extent of marine biosphere make marine resources of great diversity and quantum offering enormous scope to depend upon for foods, feeds, fuels, fleet operations and factory raw materials serving the humankind. The Ocean as the largest spatial entity has potential galore beyond our imagination. With the passage of time the technological advancements and diminishing and dwindling terrestrial resource will together make marine resources darling of the day especially among the advanced nations. War will be fought for commanding control on the oceanic territory. The China Sea is the live example of this.
References
- David Michel, D. and Sticklor R (Edits), 2012: Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime Security and Policy Challenges, Stimson Washington, DC 20036
- FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2005: Fisheries and Aquaculture-National Aquaculture Sector Over view-India. FAO, 2017: http://www.fao.org/fishery/information/en
- Government of India, 2014: Handbook on Fisheries Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture.
- http://study.com/academy/lesson/marine-resources-characteristics-formation-management.html
- http://www.eu-hermione.net/learning/ocean-resources
- http://www.marinebio.net/marinescience/06future/olres.htm
- http://www.ncaor.gov.in/pages/researchview/8)
- http://www.thomson edu.com/earth science/garrison for 1st classification
- http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans/high-levelobjectives/ecosystem-health/#topPage
- United Nation Statistical Division, https://unstats.un.org/unsd/ environment/ProportionPopulationCoastalZones.htm
- World Ocean Review (WOR-1), 2010: Living with the Oceans published by maribus, mareverlag GmbH & Co., Hamburg, Germany. Available at : http://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1
- World Ocean Review (WOR-3), 2014: Marine Resources – Opportunities and Risks published by maribus, mareverlag GmbH &Co., Hamburg, Germany. http://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-3
- null ↵