1 Introduction to Resource Geography

Dr Seema Mehra Parihar

KEYWORDS

Environmentalism, sustainable development, determinism

INTRODUCTION

Geography is the scientific study of earth, its produce & its inhabitants. The seed of geography lies in the writing of early scholars, precisely the Greeks who were the first to evolve the discipline. Eratosthenes over 2200 years ago coined the word geography. Later the romans discussed pattern and process of the physical world and focused their attention on human activities and life.Geography is a discipline that analyzes the spatial variation in terms of area and relationship between spatial variable. All the variables found on the earth can be classified into physical and human groups. On the basis of nature of variables, geography is broadly classified into two branches, Physical Geography and Human Geography. On the basis of specialization, the two main branches are further divided into sub-branches Economic and Political Geography. Economic geography encompasses various factors, elements, patterns, and inter-relationships of human activities, and, as such, may further be divided into resource, agriculture, industrial and the transport geography. Resource geography studies all types of resources of the earth, their characteristics, production, patterns of areal distribution and conservation.

Resource geography may thus be defined as the study of the distribution and characteristics of resources, which distinguish one region from another, with interest focused on utilization, evaluation, conservation and management of resources in relation to environment. It encompasses a study of prospecting of natural resources by man, their utilization and development.A thing become a source by its function in relation to man. For example, a lump of coal is resource not because of it physical properties or composition, nor for its scarcity but because it functions for satisfying some human want.

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To a prehistoric man, the vast deposits of minerals lying under ground e.g. coal, petroleum, iron ore, etc… were unknown. He was not aware of their uses. To him, they were not resources. But to a modern man they are doing wonders. They function for his benefit and for satisfying his wants. To him, they are resources. (GAUTAM n.d.)

GROWTH OF RESOURCE GEOGRAPHY

The beginnings of geographical knowledge may be traced back to the rise of human civilization and culture. Initially however, the scope of geography was not well defined. While searching for food, clothing and shelter, man explored forests, water bodies, arable land, etc. Thus, he got he got acquainted with the resources and the areas of those resources. This was perhaps the beginning of resource geography, though as a branch of geography, it grew much later.

As said earlier, geography developed into 2 main branches- physical and human. Resources were studied under human geography. French geographer J.Brunhes in his Principles Of Human Geography laid emphasis on the ‘geography of prime necessities of life’ and ‘geography of exploitation of the earth’. Under geography of prime necessities of life, he included food, clothes and shelter, while agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting and mining were the subject matter of geography of exploitation of the earth. American geographer E.Huntington included physical conditions e.g. water bodies, soil, minerals, animals, plants etc. and human responses as reflected in his material needs, occupation etc.

Later, several specialized branches of geography evolved in order to study and analyze the inhabitants of the earth. Economic geography was developed in the latter half of the 19th century, as a branch of human geography. It studies and analyzes resources and human activities and their interactions in the various regions.

Environmentalism is an important subject matter of human geography. The concept of determinism and possiblism discussed the relationship between man and his environment. Indirectly, though, the two concepts highlighted the importance of resources and their utilization. In the early part of the 20th century, scholars like Carl Sauer, Hartshorne, Jones etc. presented their views on economic geography and gave importance to natural resources, their utilization, agriculture, mining, manufacturing and conservation of resources. New branches of geography evolved because of a growing tendency of specialization. Emphasis was laid on the independent study of these branches of geography. Economic geography developed in Germany, while the British and American scholars like Chisholm, Whitebeck, Smith etc. attached more importance top commercial geography.

After the world war 2, special importance was given to the human resources and optimum use of natural resources. Resource appraisal and their utilization were given special attention because of their importance for the economic progress of the country. The increasing mechanization and technological development after the world war 2 was reflected in the development of means of transport and communications, productions, utilization and conservation of resources research and development activities in industrialization etc. All these developments enriched the field of resource geography. It has become a new field which has included the management science within it. Resource geography is also a branch for the study of new type of evolution in generic management practices which has brought a resource specific research and trainings.

New dimension in study of resource study is the social injustice aspect of its appropriation by few at the cost of several ‘unpeople’(CHOMSKY 2011) Geography needs to have in its discourse the injustice involved in spatial variation in resource ownership. With social justice and inequities on one hand the divide widened and ownership of resources became skewed many a times.

“We are sleepwalking towards an avoidable age of crisis. One in seven people on the planet go hungry every day despite the fact that the world is capable of feeding everyone , Dame Barbara Stocking,2013”

Further, the advancement in GIS and remote sensing has led to the association of resource geography with these modern techniques which have widened the scope of subject even further Resource geography can now be a subject with a wider discourse for the students in planning and policy making.

What is important to understand is that “Resources are not givens but culturally mediated appraisals of the physical environment that are shaped by economic factors, political institutions, social attributes, and belief systems, Bridge ,2000: 13266” Therefore the “task of resource geography is huge where it becomes relevant explain how these mediations (CMA)differentiate and integrate the global economy, and examine their wellbeing and examine their environmental outcomes, Bridge,2001”.

FEATURES

Features, the word means a typical quality or an important part of something.(DICTIONARY n.d.)Looking into resource geography, in the light of this word brings the following aspect of resource geography in limelight: –

1.) Physical aspect of resource geography

2.) Human aspect of resource geography

1.) Physical aspect of resource geography

The whole of geography revolves around human, though, this aspect has been the cause of conflict between the determinist and possibilist kind of geographers, yet it cannot be denied that the physical world brings the materialist spectacle for the geographers. In this scenario, resource geography is much centric on the physical aspect of geography. Resource geography by its very name, is the study of the spatial variation in the physical stuffs with regard to their appraisal by humans. This appraisal makes the stuff as a resource. Therefore, a geographic understanding of resource is an important constituent of resource geography.

Meaning of Resource:

Etymologically, “resource refers to two separate words , re, and source, that indicate any thing or substance that may occur unhindered many more times”. It is only in early part of the twentieth century that the term resource came in forefront and few started writing about it.

Only in 1933, when the eminent professor of economics Erich W. Zimmermann promulgated his famous “Concept of Resource”, the idea became so popular that numerous articles and papers started pouring in the contemporary Economic Geographical literature. Urgent need was felt to identify the new concept as a separate and important branch of study.

“Resource, popularly, signifies a source or possibility of assistance; an expedient; means of support; means to attain given end; capacity to take advantage of opportunities and above all that upon which one relies for aid, support or supply, Zimmerman,1933”.

The above definitions vary markedly and fail miserably to produce any comprehensive universally accepted meaning of resource. However, after critical examinations and analyses all these meanings can be grouped into two, i.e., resources may help us if we are:

(a) Taking advantage of opportunity.

(b) Overcoming obstacles or resistances.

The first is a positive approach, the second role of resource is, surely, negative.

Resource can be subjective as well as objective. Subjective resource denotes internal resource, objective resource is external resource.

Prof. Zimmermann’s inimitable definition runs: “The word resource does not refer to a thing or a substance but to a function which a thing or a substance may perform or to an operation in which it may take part, namely, the function or operation of attaining a given end such as satisfying a want. In other words, the word resource is an abstraction reflecting human appraisal and relating to a function or operation”.

A thing or substance is not considered as resource when it fails to give satisfaction to human beings. Proven reserves of petroleum in the midst of inaccessible terrain or in the abyss is not considered resource as they fail to yield any satisfaction to either society or individual.

Geo-thermal energy in this contemporary world is considered to be the most useful resource, but, till recently, this heat-flow was not considered as resource—because man was absolutely ignorant about its uses.

Resource must possess two important properties:

(a) Function ability, and

(b) Utility.

To define anything or substance as resource, one must critically examine whether it has the property of both utility or function ability. The presence of both utility and function ability is mandatory for resource creation. For example, a bottle of poison has function ability but it has got no utility value as food. The function ability is also the function of space and time.

“Any material which is valuable and useful for humans is called a resource”. In fact, “every material has some utility for human beings but its utilisation is possible on the availability of appropriate technology (Culturally driven)”. Only use of each one of them make them a resource.

“As Geography developed along nomothetic lines after the 1950s, resource or environmental geography became a specialty subject focused largely on concrete problems and policy responses , Bridge,2000” (Bridge, 2000: p. 13266).This has been elaborated in many texts published in

1990’s and as stated by Mather and Chapman (1995) and Mitchell (1989) “applied, ecological emphasis on exploring the relationships between environment, resources, and society is significant and very important”.

Resource Geography and its identity as a branch of Geography

It is important to understand the relationship between Resource Geography and Economic Geography. What is found in academic articles published from 1970’s till today is that “economic geography textbooks invariably recognize the fundamental importance of resources to the global economy, resource exploitation has been peripheral to the sub discipline’s substantive concerns”Chapman,1995.

Need to study Resources is very relevant today .We cannot survive without resources. Moreover, population and resource balance has spatial-temporal connotation /relationship. Therefore we need to remember human ability and need create resource value. “Natural Resources which satisfy the material and spiritual needs of humans are the free gifts of the nature and any material which is valuable and useful for humans is called a resource” Mitchell,1989.

2.) Human aspect of resource geography

The role of man was grossly underestimated in earlier times. Only after the resource concept was introduced role of man in the overall resource creation process was clearly understood. In this context we can recall the legendary remarks of Prof. Zimmermann: “man’s own wisdom is his premier resource—the key resource that unlocks the universe”.

Considering resource, a static or fixed asset was another misconception in those days. In reality, the potential ability of resource cannot be measured precisely, as, always, it may increase with improved technological advancement. Zimmermann opined that resource is as dynamic as the civilization itself.

Early geographers were totally ignorant about the property of resistance hidden within things or substances. If resourcefulness is considered as positive aspect of resource, resistance is the opposite to that of resource like assets and liabilities or profit and loss.

The human aspect involved in resource geography is not only concerned with individuals as a unit, but it involves human with their cultural traits. The trait which allows humans to convert the stuff around them into resources, via the means of technology is in essence a common achievement of the society at large. The involvement of society makes resource subject to its compatibility with the given mode of societal economic production. The rise of state and its machineries have appropriated the resources in a way best fitted to serve the class composition of the state. This has led to wide spread dispossession and lack of guardianship in resource management. The technological achievement having the background of sum total of collective human achievement has become redundant. The ability to harness resource is no longer an indication of a shift in nation’s stage of development, rather it has been observed that resource appraisal in the third world is done by corporate giants having their loyalty towards the imperial powers.

A primitive man may not be able to harness resource from a substance but a supra-animal modern man may, by his scientific Midas touch, transform such simple substance into a precious resource. To a man of animal level resistance plays a very dominant role—where nature poses obstacle for resource creation—but, to a modern Man, knowledge plays a key role to convert neutral stuff into resource.

The tropical Africa is well endowed with huge water resources. Due to backward economy and technological drawbacks, inhabitants of that region cannot convert it into energy. On the contrary, the Japanese were able to produce huge energy from far less water resources. This is because of scientific knowledge, expertise and greater economic development.

The advancement of civilization is the product of expansion of human information base. Information about minerals—coal, petroleum, iron ore, copper etc., about agriculture — HYV seeds, pesticides, insecticides etc., about manufacturing industry—the invention of steam en-gines, boilers, turbines, converters etc., were possible with the increasing scientific knowledge.

This increasing knowledge reduced the resistances of the natural things or substances and converted them to resources. So, Wesley C. Mitchell had aptly said: “Incomparably greatest among human resources is knowledge”.

So, with the efforts of man, through the functional or operational process, resource is dynamically created. Without human effort resource cannot be created because man is the ultimate consumer of resource. Without any operational process, a thing or substance remains neutral, resource cannot be created and what is created now may be enhanced or increased with increasing knowledge. So, resource creation process is highly dynamic in nature.(SALIL n.d.)

Natural Resource Curse Theory (Bridge,2000)

Another important aspect to understand is Natural resource curse theory , “this is a theory that states if a country has one very valuable resource all efforts of the country are put into the exploitation of that resource and that limits the potential development of other industries and if the resource is in the hands of a minority unscrupulous ruling elite, the profits are not shared well amongst people in the country” (Hayten,et.al., 2015). Another reality is that “agglomerations and associated global or local production, value chains, or networks simply cannot exist without resources and relentlessly powerful centripetal tendencies of economic development simultaneously promote centrifugal tendencies in the search for resources in the remotest parts of the earth”(Chapman,2010). We all cannot overlook what is happening around us like gobal warming, loss of biodiversity, species becoming extinct, different forms of pollution and and so on. “Resource peripheries have become increasingly contested places around the globe and in effect center stage to battles over resource values and resource use” (Bridge,2009) and this is so evident from the expanding and mushrooming:

Resource-based corporations in the world , eg., MNC’s, and resource-based trade and foreign direct investment

Resource geography as a discipline today therefore talks about

“space–place relations”, “global–local dynamics”,

“examination of the role and diversity of institutions”, and

“evaluation of the positive and negative impacts of markets”.

Resource Peripheries

We need to understand the meaning of Resource Peripheries . “While resources are produced and consumed everywhere, resource peripheries gain their identity from significant dependence on resources for their well-being and what is found is that across the global economy, resource peripheries (and communities) have developed mainly to exploit and export resources for consumption” (Auty, 2001; Hayter and Barnes, 1990). Resource peripheries are “the geographical equivalent of the marginal unit in mainstream economics, which is the last to be added and the first to be withdrawn in responding to, and ‘settling down’ price changes”(Eden hoffer and Hayter, 2013a).Typically, “resource peripheries feature high levels of internal and external competition, to add value to resources, differentiate production, and develop flexible specialized structures have helped mitigate competition”( Reiffenstein et al., 2002; Patchell and Hater, 1997).

We need to understand that all resource spaces are unique. “Mature Resource regions draw upon established capital and human resources and for many resource peripheries and communities, the staple trap or curse is a haunting reality” Gunton,2003 . There is a need to understand this because many regions have many negative bearings including, “lack of resource base; remoteness from markets; specialized infrastructures; ingrained export-based resource cultures; small population base; specialized labor skills, and so on” (Watkins, 1963; Gunton, 2003). “For many resource peripheries and communities, the staple trap or curse is a haunting reality and that too when multiple resource corporations are also often highly conservative, locked-in to established attitudes, knowledge, technologies, and missions” (Edenhoffer and Hayter,2013b). Sad is that “Resource wealth has provided the basis for highly diversified, rich and urbanized economies” (Walker, 2001).Across different parts of the world “there are resource peripheries and communities struggling to become more resilient” (Markey et al., 2012; Polèse and Shearmur, 2006).

We need to remember that resource spaces exist and are diverse . They may be heterogeneous or

homogenous spaces . Figure: Diverse Resource Spaces

Resource and Wealth:

In day-to-day life, a common man often uses the terms resource and wealth for same purpose and meaning. Both the words signify the same expression. But, in economics and resource study, these words convey separate meanings.

Wealth, as stated by noted economist J. M. Keynes, “consists of all potentially exchangeable means of satisfying human wants”. So, wealth must possess Utility, Function ability, Scarcity and Transferability. But wealth is always measurable, i.e., wealth can be expressed in terms of measuring units, like rupees.

In this manner, culture cannot be considered a wealth as it cannot be expressed by any measuring unit.On the contrary, resource may be tangible as well as intangible substances. Anything satisfying human wants can be termed resource—be it tangible or not.

Wealth is synonymous with valuables, i.e., it should be scarce while resource may be ubiquitous or abundant, e.g., sunshine, air etc.

Different properties of wealth and resource are:

Figure 2: Different properties of Wealth & Resource

So, all wealth’s are resource but all resources are not wealth. Resource incorporates much more than wealth in a sense that culture, technology, innovative power, skill and different other aspects are included in the realm of resource.

SUMMARY: –

Modern geography had its origin in the surge of scholarly enquiry that, beginning in the 17th century gave rise to many of the traditional academic disciplines we know today including resource geography , commonly referred interchangeably as economic geography and all confused between generation of unipolar homogenous and heterogeneous patterns or as integrative branch of study.

– Environmentalism is an important subject matter of human geography. The concept of determinism and possiblism discussed the relationship between man and his environment.

Indirectly, though, the two concepts highlighted the importance of resources and their utilization. In the early part of the 20th century, scholars like Carl Sauer, Hartshorne, Jones etc. presented their views on economic geography and gave importance to natural resources, their utilization, agriculture, mining, manufacturing and conservation of resources.

– The whole of geography revolves around human, though, this aspect has been the cause of conflict between the determinist and possibilist kind of geographers, yet it cannot be denied that the physical world brings the materialist spectacle for the geographers. In this scenario, resource geography is much centric on the physical aspect of geography.

– With the efforts of man, through the functional or operational process, resource is dynamically created. Without human effort resource cannot be created because man is the ultimate consumer of resource. Without any operational process, a thing or substance remains neutral, resource cannot be created and what is created now may be enhanced or increased with increasing knowledge. So, resource creation process is highly dynamic in nature.

you can view video on Introduction to Resource Geography

References

CHOMSKY, NOAM, interview by AAMY GOODMAN. 2011. Democracy Now: Noam Chomsky, on people and “unpeople” (OCTOBER 11).
Dame Barbara Stocking. 20013. Chief Executive, Oxfam (2001-2013).
DICTIONARY, CAMBRIDGE. n.d. Bridge, volume 19, pp. 13266–13269, 2001, Elsevier Ltd.)
GAUTAM, ALKA. n.d. RESOURCE GEOGRAPHY.
SALIL, ARCHANA. n.d. YOUR ARTICLE LIBRARY.
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/geography/resources/resource-meaning-concept-and-its-classification-geography/74529/.