{"id":66,"date":"2018-07-17T10:10:10","date_gmt":"2018-07-17T10:10:10","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/ftp5.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&p=66"},"modified":"2018-08-07T11:57:35","modified_gmt":"2018-08-07T11:57:35","slug":"technology-of-breadmaking-1-straight-dough-and-sponge-and-dough-methods","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/chapter\/technology-of-breadmaking-1-straight-dough-and-sponge-and-dough-methods\/","title":{"rendered":"Technology of breadmaking-1: straight dough and sponge and dough methods"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n1.0 Bread<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Bread is a basic dietary item dating back to the Neolithic era which is prepared by baking that is carried out in oven. It is one of the most consumed food products known to humans, and for some is the principal source of nutrition. Control of the production and distribution of bread has been used as a means of exercising political influence over the populace for at least the last two millennia.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nFood Safety and Standards Regulations, 2009<\/strong>:\r\n\r\n \r\n

Bread <\/strong>whether sold as white bread or wheat meal bread or fancy or fruity bread or bun or masala bread or milk bread or of any other name, shall mean the product prepared from a mixture of wheat atta, maida, water, salt, yeast or other fermentive medium containing one or more of the following ingredients, namely:- Condensed milk, milk powder (whole or skimmed), whey, curd, gluten, sugar, gur or jaggery, khandsari, honey, liquid glucose, malt products, edible starches and flour, edible groundnut flour, edible soya flour, protein concentrates and isolates, vanaspati, margarine or refined edible oil of suitable type or butter or ghee or their mixture, albumin, lime water, lysine, vitamins, spices and condiments or their extracts, fruit and fruit product (Candied and crystallized or glazed), nuts, nut products and vinegar.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\"\"<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\n\"\"\r\n\r\n2.0 Bread making<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

There are numerous variations of bread making process depending on the tradition, cost, kind of flour, type of bread desired, kind of energy available and the time between baking and consumption of bread. These processes change the rheological and organoleptic properties of bread and hence the quality of bread also.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nThe bread making process can be divided into three principal stages:\r\n\r\n \r\n

1)\u00a0Dough formation: <\/em><\/strong>The way the dough is kneaded creates the difference between all the bread making processes. Depending on the method of dough formation the process is categorized into straight dough method, sponge and dough method, short dough method etc. This stage involves the thorough mixing of ingredients. With the help of mixer the\u00a0gluten development, air bubble incorporation and production of dough with required rheological properties is achieved in this stage.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n

2)\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>Fermentation and proofing: <\/em><\/strong>In this stage, the yeast acts on fermentable sugars and produce CO2 and ethanol. During baking the alcohol evaporates completely leaving no adverse effect in bread while the CO2 gas is entrapped by gluten film that expands during baking and increases the volume of the baked product along with giving it a porous texture.<\/p>\r\n\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>\r\n

3)\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>Baking: <\/em><\/strong>In this final stage of bread making, due to the action of heat the dough is firmed, structure is stabilized and converted into the baked product.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1 Steps in bread making<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe various steps involved in bread making are as follows-\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\"\"\r\n\r\n2.1.1 Preparation of ingredients<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe different ingredients used in bread making can be categorized into the following:<\/span>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n\"\"\r\n\r\n \r\n

Calculation of ingredients: <\/em><\/strong>The ingredients are calculated in the formulation on the \u2018Baker\u2019s percentage\u2019 basis. Baker's percentage is a baker's notation method indicating the flour-relative proportion of ingredients used in the formulation of bread. To calculate the baker\u2019s percentage, all ingredient weights are divided by the flour weight to obtain a ratio which is then multiplied by 100%.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nBaker\u2019s percentage = (ingredient wt. \/ flour wt.) * 100%\r\n\r\n \r\n

Preparation of dry ingredients: <\/em><\/strong>The flour and any other dry ingredient is generally sieved before using to aerate, to remove coarse particles and other impurities and to make these more homogenous.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Weighing of ingredients: <\/em><\/strong>The different ingredients are weighed according to the formulations for further utilization.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Preparation of different solution: <\/em><\/strong>Part of water is used for dispersing yeast and the remaining part is used to dissolve sugar and other ingredients like oxidants, yeast foods etc.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1.2 Dough formation<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Dough is formed by mixing of the prepared ingredients. Mixing is the one of the most important step in bread making serving the following functions:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

    \r\n \t
  • To distribute all the ingredients as equitably as possible.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
  • To make and develop the gluten by interacting the wheat proteins- gliadin and glutenin together in the presence of water.<\/li>\r\n \t
  • To incorporate air into the dough mass, thus nucleating the bubbles essential to every style of leavening.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
    \r\n\r\n \r\n

    Mechanical mixers are used for the dough formation. Dough mixing can be carried out using horizontal, vertical, reciprocating or continuous mixers as per requirement.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
    S. No.<\/strong><\/td>\r\nMixer<\/strong><\/td>\r\nDescription<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    1<\/td>\r\nHorizontal<\/td>\r\n\u00b7\u00a0 Consists of a horizontal U shaped bowl mounted on a<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nrigid frame<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n\u00b7\u00a0 Used mainly when gluten development is desired<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n\u00b7\u00a0 Can be used for mixtures ranging from thin batters to<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\ntough doughs<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n\u00b7\u00a0 The dough is discharged from the mixer by tilting the<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nbowl<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    2<\/td>\r\nVertical<\/td>\r\n\u00b7\u00a0 Consists of a movable bowl or trough with one or two<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nvertical shafts (stationary\/planetary movement)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n\u00b7\u00a0 Different types of agitators to perform different functions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nviz. planetary agitator for batter mixing, hook type for<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nkneading, wire mesh type for beating action, paddle type<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nfor mixing and scraping of the bowl sides etc.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    3<\/td>\r\nContinuous<\/td>\r\n\u00b7\u00a0 Consists of a shallow, slowly revolving bowl, a pair of<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nagitator arms travelling in a intersecting elliptical path in<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nthe bowl<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n\u00b7\u00a0 Useful for mixing temperature sensitive doughs<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n\u00b7\u00a0 Nuts and raisins can be maintained unbroken in this type<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nof mixer<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    <\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n\u00b7\u00a0 Suitable for pie dough and puff pastry<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n

    The\u00a0 different\u00a0 stages\u00a0 in\u00a0 dough\u00a0 formation\u00a0 or\u00a0 mixing\u00a0 are\u00a0 pick-up\u00a0 stage,\u00a0 clean-up\u00a0 stage, development\u00a0 stage,\u00a0 final\u00a0 stage,\u00a0 let-down\u00a0 stage\u00a0 and\u00a0 break-down\u00a0 stage.\u00a0 The\u00a0 duration\u00a0 of\u00a0mixing is greatly affected by the type of flour, type and speed of mixer, design of the arms of mixer, presence of additives particle size as well as damaged starch content of flour. Strong flour requires longer mixing time than weak flours. Duration of mixing also affects the optimum gluten development and water absorption. Over mixing and under mixing of dough both affect the dough adversely as follows:<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Over mixing: <\/em>The developed gluten structure is broken down resulting into wet, sticky dough termed as \u2018broken down dough\u2019. The fermentation is slowed down due to heat produced during prolonged mixing resulting into bread of inferior volume.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

    Under mixing: <\/em>The dough is underdeveloped and hence is less elastic. The volume of bread will be low and at times the bread will collapse in proofing or in the oven as gluten will not have the proper extensibility to hold the gas in the dough.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1.3. First fermentation\/ first proof\/ bulk fermentation<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

    After the mixing and before dividing the dough is given resting time (floor time) in bulk. Duration of this resting time may vary depending on the kind of process and equipment. This step is done at temperature ranging from 24-30oC and humidity of 70-75 %, which is the most favourable condition for action of yeast in bread dough. The humidity is also needed to avoid dried surfaces on bread dough. The purpose of this step is:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

      \r\n \t
    • To let the fermenting agent, yeast adapt to the medium<\/li>\r\n \t
    • Carbon dioxide production<\/li>\r\n \t
    • Physical transformation of the dough<\/li>\r\n \t
    • To improve dough stability<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1.4. Dividing and scaling<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

      In this step the dough is divided into individual pieces of predetermined uniform weight. To compensate the baking loss, generally 12 per cent extra dough is weighed. The dough can also be divided volumetrically.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1.5. Rounding<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe dough pieces obtained after dividing step have following problems:\r\n

        \r\n \t
      • Dough piece is degassed<\/li>\r\n \t
      • Irregular form<\/li>\r\n \t
      • Higher viscosity of dough surface<\/li>\r\n \t
      • Damaged gluten structure<\/li>\r\n \t
      • Less plegability of the dough<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
        \r\n\r\n \r\n

        To overcome these problems the dough pieces are rounded into ball shaped pieces with smooth skin. Rounding is done either by hand or mechanically. The continuous surface skin thus obtained helps in gas retention and reduce the stickiness.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1.6. Inter mediate proofing<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

        Dividing and rounding steps of bread making squeezes out most of the CO2 gas formed in the first fermentation. Hence the dough is again given extra floor time or fermentation period of 5 to 30 minutes at 27 \u2013 29oC temperature and 75 % humidity. Maintaining the temperature and humidity conditions is crucial for optimum results.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1.7. Moulding and panning<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

        In this step the dough pieces are moulded into desired shape by sheeting, curling and sealing of the dough pieces. The moulded dough pieces are then placed in pans for baking. Caution should be taken to place the seal of the dough so as facing toward the bottom of the pan. This step of moulding also removes the extra gas formed during intermediate proofing.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1.8. Final proofing<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

        The final proofing is done at temperature of 30-35oC and RH of 85 % for 55-65 minutes. The objectives of final proofing are as follows:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

          \r\n \t
        • To relax the dough from the stress<\/li>\r\n \t
        • To facilitate yeast activity for maximum gas production in order to achieve maximum leavening in the bread<\/li>\r\n \t
        • To convert the tough gluten to a good mellow extensible character<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n \r\n

          During the fermentation the starch is converted into sugar which is used by yeast to produce CO2 gas and ethanol. The carbon dioxide gas formed is entrapped by the gluten film resulting into expansion of bread loaf volume. The proofing temperature greatly affect the proofing time. A lower proof temperature will result into prolonged proofing time (2-4 hr) due to decreased yeast activity. The amount and type of yeast, dough temperature,<\/strong> dough hydration, salt, sweeteners are the factors that affect the proofing time.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1.9. Baking<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

          After the final proofing, the leavened dough is baked at temperature of 245-250oC for 30 minutes in baking oven. Baking brings out physical, chemical and biological transformations in dough that allow a stable bread to be obtained with excellent organoleptic and nutritive characteristics. For optimum baking, the temperature, relative humidity and duration of baking need to be controlled. The type of baking oven also affects baking. During baking as the temperature of the dough increased, it passes three phases:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\na)\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>Oven spring: <\/em><\/strong>Oven spring of occurs when the dough temperature reaches about 50oC (range is 30 \u2013 60 or 70oC).<\/span>\r\n

            \r\n \t
          • Intensive fermentation by yeast until dough temperature reaches 50oC temperature, increased production of CO2<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
          • Very high enzyme activity (maximum at 60oC, minimum at 80oC) leading to conversion of starch to sugar, liquefaction of dough and decrease in viscosity<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
            \r\n\r\n \r\n

            b)\u00a0\u00a0<\/em>Gelatinization of starch<\/em><\/strong>: The increase in dough temperature from 50-60oC to 90oC leads to the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

              \r\n \t
            • \u00a0<\/em>Gelatinization of starch \u2013 during baking the water is transferred from the gluten, hydrated during kneading to starch and at such a high temperature starch is gelatinized.<\/li>\r\n \t
            • Denaturation of protein \u2013 occurs at 70oC and provides a stable bread structure<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n \r\n\r\nc)<\/em><\/strong>Browning and aroma formation: <\/em><\/strong>As the temperature outside the dough reaches more than 100oC, sugar present on the outer surface of bread gives brown colour due to:\r\n
                \r\n \t
              • Maillard reaction between reducing sugars (glucose, fructose) and the amino group of proteins to form dark brown melanoidins and other intermediate compounds such as maltol, iso maltol and \u03b1-dicarboniles.<\/li>\r\n \t
              • Caramelization because of dehydration of sugar at high temperatures resulting into formation of very reactive furfural aldehyde and other dark compounds. The aroma in baking develops due to the compounds formed as a result of browning reactions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1.10. Cooling and slicing<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

                The baked bread is cooled down to room temperature while taking caution of the relative humidity of the atmosphere. The reason being high humidity may lead to moisture gain by bread crust resulting into less crunchy crust and low humidity will cause loss of moisture from bread crust. Cooling of bread is done for the following purposes-<\/p>\r\n\r\n

                  \r\n \t
                • To facilitate slicing<\/li>\r\n \t
                • To avoid moisture condensation in the packaging<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n \r\n\r\n2.1.11. Packaging<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

                  After cooling, packaging of bread is done to maintain the product quality by reducing crumb drying, minimizing contamination risk and facilitating bread transportation. However packaging material should also confirm to following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

                    \r\n \t
                  • Sealability<\/li>\r\n \t
                  • Low water vapour transmission rate<\/li>\r\n \t
                  • Economy<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
                    \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n3.0 Straight dough and Sponge & dough process<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

                    The basic steps in bread making as explained are same for all variations of bread making processes. However it is the dough formation method that creates all the differences in final baked breads. Depending on the method of the dough formation, the two processes of bread making - Straight-dough process and Sponge-and-dough process are named. The difference in dough formation method between both the method are shown below in the process flow chart:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

                    \r\n\r\n\"\"\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n\"\"\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n3.1 Differences in straight dough and sponge & dough method<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                    Straight Dough process<\/strong><\/td>\r\nSponge and dough process<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    \u00b7 Less processing time<\/td>\r\n\u00b7 More processing time<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    \u00b7 Lower labour and power consumption<\/td>\r\n\u00b7 More labour and power consumption<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    \u00b7 Lesser equipment needed<\/td>\r\n\u00b7 Additional equipment needed<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    \u00b7 Requires limited fermentation time<\/td>\r\n\u00b7 Longer fermentation time that improves<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    \u00b7 Relatively small variations in processing<\/td>\r\nthe aroma<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    may lead to noticeable in bread quality<\/td>\r\n\u00b7 Permits variation in the operation of the<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    \u00b7 Small fermentation losses<\/td>\r\nprocess<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    \u00b7 Lesser flexibility<\/td>\r\n\u00b7 Enhanced texture volume and shelf life\u00a0of the bread<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                    \u00b7 Correction of over fermentation is\u00a0difficult<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nSuggested reading<\/strong>\r\n
                      \r\n \t
                    • Khetarpaul N et al. (2005). Bakery Science and Cereal Technology. Published by Daya Publishing House, Delhi. ISBN 81-7035-350-5. Pp: 311.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"
                      \n

                       <\/p>\n

                      1.0 Bread<\/strong><\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      Bread is a basic dietary item dating back to the Neolithic era which is prepared by baking that is carried out in oven. It is one of the most consumed food products known to humans, and for some is the principal source of nutrition. Control of the production and distribution of bread has been used as a means of exercising political influence over the populace for at least the last two millennia.<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      Food Safety and Standards Regulations, 2009<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      Bread <\/strong>whether sold as white bread or wheat meal bread or fancy or fruity bread or bun or masala bread or milk bread or of any other name, shall mean the product prepared from a mixture of wheat atta, maida, water, salt, yeast or other fermentive medium containing one or more of the following ingredients, namely:- Condensed milk, milk powder (whole or skimmed), whey, curd, gluten, sugar, gur or jaggery, khandsari, honey, liquid glucose, malt products, edible starches and flour, edible groundnut flour, edible soya flour, protein concentrates and isolates, vanaspati, margarine or refined edible oil of suitable type or butter or ghee or their mixture, albumin, lime water, lysine, vitamins, spices and condiments or their extracts, fruit and fruit product (Candied and crystallized or glazed), nuts, nut products and vinegar.<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                      \"\"<\/div>\n
                      \n

                      \"\"<\/p>\n

                      2.0 Bread making<\/strong><\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      There are numerous variations of bread making process depending on the tradition, cost, kind of flour, type of bread desired, kind of energy available and the time between baking and consumption of bread. These processes change the rheological and organoleptic properties of bread and hence the quality of bread also.<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      The bread making process can be divided into three principal stages:<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      1)\u00a0Dough formation: <\/em><\/strong>The way the dough is kneaded creates the difference between all the bread making processes. Depending on the method of dough formation the process is categorized into straight dough method, sponge and dough method, short dough method etc. This stage involves the thorough mixing of ingredients. With the help of mixer the\u00a0gluten development, air bubble incorporation and production of dough with required rheological properties is achieved in this stage.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                      \n

                       <\/p>\n

                      2)\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>Fermentation and proofing: <\/em><\/strong>In this stage, the yeast acts on fermentable sugars and produce CO2 and ethanol. During baking the alcohol evaporates completely leaving no adverse effect in bread while the CO2 gas is entrapped by gluten film that expands during baking and increases the volume of the baked product along with giving it a porous texture.<\/p>\n

                      \u00a0<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

                      3)\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>Baking: <\/em><\/strong>In this final stage of bread making, due to the action of heat the dough is firmed, structure is stabilized and converted into the baked product.<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      2.1 Steps in bread making<\/strong><\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      The various steps involved in bread making are as follows-<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                      \"\"<\/p>\n

                      2.1.1 Preparation of ingredients<\/strong><\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      The different ingredients used in bread making can be categorized into the following:<\/span><\/p>\n

                      \n

                       <\/p>\n

                      \"\"<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      Calculation of ingredients: <\/em><\/strong>The ingredients are calculated in the formulation on the \u2018Baker\u2019s percentage\u2019 basis. Baker’s percentage is a baker’s notation method indicating the flour-relative proportion of ingredients used in the formulation of bread. To calculate the baker\u2019s percentage, all ingredient weights are divided by the flour weight to obtain a ratio which is then multiplied by 100%.<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      Baker\u2019s percentage = (ingredient wt. \/ flour wt.) * 100%<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      Preparation of dry ingredients: <\/em><\/strong>The flour and any other dry ingredient is generally sieved before using to aerate, to remove coarse particles and other impurities and to make these more homogenous.<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      Weighing of ingredients: <\/em><\/strong>The different ingredients are weighed according to the formulations for further utilization.<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      Preparation of different solution: <\/em><\/strong>Part of water is used for dispersing yeast and the remaining part is used to dissolve sugar and other ingredients like oxidants, yeast foods etc.<\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      2.1.2 Dough formation<\/strong><\/p>\n

                       <\/p>\n

                      Dough is formed by mixing of the prepared ingredients. Mixing is the one of the most important step in bread making serving the following functions:<\/p>\n

                        \n
                      • To distribute all the ingredients as equitably as possible.<\/span><\/li>\n
                      • To make and develop the gluten by interacting the wheat proteins- gliadin and glutenin together in the presence of water.<\/li>\n
                      • To incorporate air into the dough mass, thus nucleating the bubbles essential to every style of leavening.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n
                        \n

                         <\/p>\n

                        Mechanical mixers are used for the dough formation. Dough mixing can be carried out using horizontal, vertical, reciprocating or continuous mixers as per requirement.<\/p>\n

                         <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                        S. No.<\/strong><\/td>\nMixer<\/strong><\/td>\nDescription<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        1<\/td>\nHorizontal<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0 Consists of a horizontal U shaped bowl mounted on a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\nrigid frame<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0 Used mainly when gluten development is desired<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0 Can be used for mixtures ranging from thin batters to<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\ntough doughs<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0 The dough is discharged from the mixer by tilting the<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\nbowl<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        2<\/td>\nVertical<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0 Consists of a movable bowl or trough with one or two<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\nvertical shafts (stationary\/planetary movement)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0 Different types of agitators to perform different functions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\nviz. planetary agitator for batter mixing, hook type for<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\nkneading, wire mesh type for beating action, paddle type<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\nfor mixing and scraping of the bowl sides etc.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        3<\/td>\nContinuous<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0 Consists of a shallow, slowly revolving bowl, a pair of<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\nagitator arms travelling in a intersecting elliptical path in<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\nthe bowl<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0 Useful for mixing temperature sensitive doughs<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0 Nuts and raisins can be maintained unbroken in this type<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\nof mixer<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                        <\/td>\n<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0 Suitable for pie dough and puff pastry<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                         <\/p>\n

                         <\/p>\n

                        The\u00a0 different\u00a0 stages\u00a0 in\u00a0 dough\u00a0 formation\u00a0 or\u00a0 mixing\u00a0 are\u00a0 pick-up\u00a0 stage,\u00a0 clean-up\u00a0 stage, development\u00a0 stage,\u00a0 final\u00a0 stage,\u00a0 let-down\u00a0 stage\u00a0 and\u00a0 break-down\u00a0 stage.\u00a0 The\u00a0 duration\u00a0 of\u00a0mixing is greatly affected by the type of flour, type and speed of mixer, design of the arms of mixer, presence of additives particle size as well as damaged starch content of flour. Strong flour requires longer mixing time than weak flours. Duration of mixing also affects the optimum gluten development and water absorption. Over mixing and under mixing of dough both affect the dough adversely as follows:<\/span><\/p>\n

                         <\/p>\n

                        Over mixing: <\/em>The developed gluten structure is broken down resulting into wet, sticky dough termed as \u2018broken down dough\u2019. The fermentation is slowed down due to heat produced during prolonged mixing resulting into bread of inferior volume.<\/span><\/p>\n

                         <\/p>\n

                        Under mixing: <\/em>The dough is underdeveloped and hence is less elastic. The volume of bread will be low and at times the bread will collapse in proofing or in the oven as gluten will not have the proper extensibility to hold the gas in the dough.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                        \n

                         <\/p>\n

                        2.1.3. First fermentation\/ first proof\/ bulk fermentation<\/strong><\/p>\n

                         <\/p>\n

                        After the mixing and before dividing the dough is given resting time (floor time) in bulk. Duration of this resting time may vary depending on the kind of process and equipment. This step is done at temperature ranging from 24-30oC and humidity of 70-75 %, which is the most favourable condition for action of yeast in bread dough. The humidity is also needed to avoid dried surfaces on bread dough. The purpose of this step is:<\/p>\n

                          \n
                        • To let the fermenting agent, yeast adapt to the medium<\/li>\n
                        • Carbon dioxide production<\/li>\n
                        • Physical transformation of the dough<\/li>\n
                        • To improve dough stability<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                           <\/p>\n

                          2.1.4. Dividing and scaling<\/strong><\/p>\n

                           <\/p>\n

                          In this step the dough is divided into individual pieces of predetermined uniform weight. To compensate the baking loss, generally 12 per cent extra dough is weighed. The dough can also be divided volumetrically.<\/p>\n

                           <\/p>\n

                          2.1.5. Rounding<\/strong><\/p>\n

                           <\/p>\n

                          The dough pieces obtained after dividing step have following problems:<\/p>\n

                            \n
                          • Dough piece is degassed<\/li>\n
                          • Irregular form<\/li>\n
                          • Higher viscosity of dough surface<\/li>\n
                          • Damaged gluten structure<\/li>\n
                          • Less plegability of the dough<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n
                            \n

                             <\/p>\n

                            To overcome these problems the dough pieces are rounded into ball shaped pieces with smooth skin. Rounding is done either by hand or mechanically. The continuous surface skin thus obtained helps in gas retention and reduce the stickiness.<\/p>\n

                             <\/p>\n

                            2.1.6. Inter mediate proofing<\/strong><\/p>\n

                             <\/p>\n

                            Dividing and rounding steps of bread making squeezes out most of the CO2 gas formed in the first fermentation. Hence the dough is again given extra floor time or fermentation period of 5 to 30 minutes at 27 \u2013 29oC temperature and 75 % humidity. Maintaining the temperature and humidity conditions is crucial for optimum results.<\/p>\n

                             <\/p>\n

                            2.1.7. Moulding and panning<\/strong><\/p>\n

                             <\/p>\n

                            In this step the dough pieces are moulded into desired shape by sheeting, curling and sealing of the dough pieces. The moulded dough pieces are then placed in pans for baking. Caution should be taken to place the seal of the dough so as facing toward the bottom of the pan. This step of moulding also removes the extra gas formed during intermediate proofing.<\/p>\n

                             <\/p>\n

                            2.1.8. Final proofing<\/strong><\/p>\n

                             <\/p>\n

                            The final proofing is done at temperature of 30-35oC and RH of 85 % for 55-65 minutes. The objectives of final proofing are as follows:<\/p>\n

                              \n
                            • To relax the dough from the stress<\/li>\n
                            • To facilitate yeast activity for maximum gas production in order to achieve maximum leavening in the bread<\/li>\n
                            • To convert the tough gluten to a good mellow extensible character<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                               <\/p>\n

                              During the fermentation the starch is converted into sugar which is used by yeast to produce CO2 gas and ethanol. The carbon dioxide gas formed is entrapped by the gluten film resulting into expansion of bread loaf volume. The proofing temperature greatly affect the proofing time. A lower proof temperature will result into prolonged proofing time (2-4 hr) due to decreased yeast activity. The amount and type of yeast, dough temperature,<\/strong> dough hydration, salt, sweeteners are the factors that affect the proofing time.<\/p>\n

                               <\/p>\n

                              2.1.9. Baking<\/strong><\/p>\n

                               <\/p>\n

                              After the final proofing, the leavened dough is baked at temperature of 245-250oC for 30 minutes in baking oven. Baking brings out physical, chemical and biological transformations in dough that allow a stable bread to be obtained with excellent organoleptic and nutritive characteristics. For optimum baking, the temperature, relative humidity and duration of baking need to be controlled. The type of baking oven also affects baking. During baking as the temperature of the dough increased, it passes three phases:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                               <\/p>\n

                              a)\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>Oven spring: <\/em><\/strong>Oven spring of occurs when the dough temperature reaches about 50oC (range is 30 \u2013 60 or 70oC).<\/span><\/p>\n

                                \n
                              • Intensive fermentation by yeast until dough temperature reaches 50oC temperature, increased production of CO2<\/span><\/li>\n
                              • Very high enzyme activity (maximum at 60oC, minimum at 80oC) leading to conversion of starch to sugar, liquefaction of dough and decrease in viscosity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                                \n

                                 <\/p>\n

                                b)\u00a0\u00a0<\/em>Gelatinization of starch<\/em><\/strong>: The increase in dough temperature from 50-60oC to 90oC leads to the following:<\/p>\n

                                  \n
                                • \u00a0<\/em>Gelatinization of starch \u2013 during baking the water is transferred from the gluten, hydrated during kneading to starch and at such a high temperature starch is gelatinized.<\/li>\n
                                • Denaturation of protein \u2013 occurs at 70oC and provides a stable bread structure<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                                   <\/p>\n

                                  c)<\/em><\/strong>Browning and aroma formation: <\/em><\/strong>As the temperature outside the dough reaches more than 100oC, sugar present on the outer surface of bread gives brown colour due to:<\/p>\n

                                    \n
                                  • Maillard reaction between reducing sugars (glucose, fructose) and the amino group of proteins to form dark brown melanoidins and other intermediate compounds such as maltol, iso maltol and \u03b1-dicarboniles.<\/li>\n
                                  • Caramelization because of dehydration of sugar at high temperatures resulting into formation of very reactive furfural aldehyde and other dark compounds. The aroma in baking develops due to the compounds formed as a result of browning reactions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                                     <\/p>\n

                                    2.1.10. Cooling and slicing<\/strong><\/p>\n

                                     <\/p>\n

                                    The baked bread is cooled down to room temperature while taking caution of the relative humidity of the atmosphere. The reason being high humidity may lead to moisture gain by bread crust resulting into less crunchy crust and low humidity will cause loss of moisture from bread crust. Cooling of bread is done for the following purposes-<\/p>\n

                                      \n
                                    • To facilitate slicing<\/li>\n
                                    • To avoid moisture condensation in the packaging<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                                       <\/p>\n

                                      2.1.11. Packaging<\/strong><\/p>\n

                                       <\/p>\n

                                      After cooling, packaging of bread is done to maintain the product quality by reducing crumb drying, minimizing contamination risk and facilitating bread transportation. However packaging material should also confirm to following:<\/p>\n

                                        \n
                                      • Sealability<\/li>\n
                                      • Low water vapour transmission rate<\/li>\n
                                      • Economy<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n
                                        \n

                                         <\/p>\n

                                        3.0 Straight dough and Sponge & dough process<\/strong><\/p>\n

                                         <\/p>\n

                                        The basic steps in bread making as explained are same for all variations of bread making processes. However it is the dough formation method that creates all the differences in final baked breads. Depending on the method of the dough formation, the two processes of bread making – Straight-dough process and Sponge-and-dough process are named. The difference in dough formation method between both the method are shown below in the process flow chart:<\/p>\n

                                         <\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                                        \n

                                        \"\"<\/p>\n

                                         <\/p>\n

                                        \"\"<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                                         <\/p>\n

                                        3.1 Differences in straight dough and sponge & dough method<\/strong><\/p>\n

                                         <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                                        Straight Dough process<\/strong><\/td>\nSponge and dough process<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                        \u00b7 Less processing time<\/td>\n\u00b7 More processing time<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                        \u00b7 Lower labour and power consumption<\/td>\n\u00b7 More labour and power consumption<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                        \u00b7 Lesser equipment needed<\/td>\n\u00b7 Additional equipment needed<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                        \u00b7 Requires limited fermentation time<\/td>\n\u00b7 Longer fermentation time that improves<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                        \u00b7 Relatively small variations in processing<\/td>\nthe aroma<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                        may lead to noticeable in bread quality<\/td>\n\u00b7 Permits variation in the operation of the<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                        \u00b7 Small fermentation losses<\/td>\nprocess<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                        \u00b7 Lesser flexibility<\/td>\n\u00b7 Enhanced texture volume and shelf life\u00a0of the bread<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                        \u00b7 Correction of over fermentation is\u00a0difficult<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                                         <\/p>\n

                                         <\/p>\n

                                        Suggested reading<\/strong><\/p>\n

                                          \n
                                        • Khetarpaul N et al. (2005). Bakery Science and Cereal Technology. Published by Daya Publishing House, Delhi. ISBN 81-7035-350-5. Pp: 311.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":13,"template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["ms-deepika-goswami"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[64],"license":[],"class_list":["post-66","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-ms-deepika-goswami"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/66","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/66\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":156,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/66\/revisions\/156"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/66\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=66"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=66"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=66"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/ftp5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=66"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}