17 Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism

Dr. Sunil Mittal

Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism

1.Introduction

2.History of bioterrorism

3.Current status

3.1.Characteristics of Bio-weapons

3.2.Types of Bio-Weapons

3.3. Delivery Methods and Mode of Transmission of Biological Weapons

4.Targets Points for bioterrorism

4.1Terrors Linked To Bioterrorism

4.2. Indicators of bioterrorism

5.Impact Of Bioterrorism On Environment

5.1.Case Studies

5.2. Measures To Prevent Bioterrorism 

6.Indian Scenario

Concluding Remarks

1.Introduction

Biological warfare or Germ warfare is the misuse of toxin producing or disease causing microorganisms with the aim to harm or kill the humans, animals or plants at large scale as an act of war. The microorganisms used for the purpose are the pathogenic viruses, bacteria, rickettsia and fungi. There are three terms in use viz biological warfare, bioterrorism and bio crime. These terms are almost similar and can be used interchangeably depending on the basis of target i.e. if used to kill specific or small number of people then term used is bio crime and if target is large population, the term used is bioterrorism or biological warfare depending on the motive of use. The use of biological weapons is not new concept and it started before 6th century. It involves the determined creation of epidemics by enemy action. The microorganisms used in biological warfare are disseminated in 2 ways, first one is formation of clouds over the target population and second is contamination of supplies such as water, food and air of target population. Impact of biological warfare mainly depends upon the type of microorganism, amount and dispersal method. Main reasons for the attraction of biological warfare products are their easy transportability, effective in small amounts, cost effective than chemical agents etc.

Definition

Biological warfare or Germ fare is the deliberate use of microbes such as viruses, bacteria, rickettsia and fungi or their toxins with the intention to kill or harm the humans, animals and/or plants of target area. The microbial agents used in biological warfare are called as biological weapons or weapons of mass destruction. These are also known as bio-agents, bio-weapon and biotoxins. Most of these bio-agents quickly replicate and reproduce rapidly in host. These are very hard to treat and control as compared to normal viruses, bacteria or fungi.

2.History of bioterrorism or biological warfare

Pre BC era: Biological warfare is not a new term. The biological agents for the purpose have been used since primitive times. As per anonymous reports dates as far back as 400 BC, Scythian archers used arrows infected on tip with blood of decomposing bodies. As per 300 BC, Roman, Greek and Persian literature, dead animals were used by them to contaminate wells and other water sources of enemy. In 190 BC, Hannibal used earthen vessels full of venomous snakes against King Eumenes II of Pergamon during the battle of Eurymedon. Apart from these, there are many more unconfirmed reports of use of sanke venoms, arsenic smoke, poisonous plants (hellebore), fungus etc. as weapons during war during BC period.

Post AD Era: In late 6th and early 7th century, the Assyrians used rye ergot (fungus) to poison water wells of their enemies. In the 12th century AD, Barbarossa also used the bodies of dead and decomposing soldiers to poison wells of enemies during the battle of Tortona. In 14th century AD, the forces of Tatar thrown plague-infected human dead bodies to cause an epidemic within enemy forces. Similarly, in 1710, the Russians catapulted the bodies of people died from plague in surroundings of Swedish forces at Reval in Estonia. In the 18th century during French and Indian War, British forces gave blankets used by smallpox victims to the Native Americans to spread smallpox disease.

The danger of these weapons of mass destruction has increased many fold since 19th century due to advancement of technology of separation of microbes. The understanding about the behavior, use, harms, storage, pathogenicity etc. of microbes has increased tremendously. Formal research in this direction started in 20th century.

Status Post World War 1: Japanese were very ambitious to produce biological weapons and research started in this direction 1928 when Lt. Gen. Ishii went to many European and American countries to find out the information and techniques regarding the bio- weapons. Upon returning to country, he started work for the massive production of bio-weapons and his research center was recognized as Unit 731 located at Manchuria. Bio-weapons including Yersinia pestis, Vibrio cholerae, Neisseria meningitidis and Bacillus anthracis were tested on the prisoners of war and several were dead. About 1700 Japanese soldiers died due to poor control of infection spreading.

During 1942, anthrax bomb were tested by British army on island of Gruinard and Scotland coast.

Status Post World War 2: After the end of World War 2, U.S. was behind many countries regarding the research on the bio-weapons and stared work with the Unit 731 of Japanese. Then U.S. navy conducted an experiment to determine the negative impacts of bio- weapons at local people in San Francisco Bay during 1950. They used Serratia marcescens bacterium because it is less pathogenic and cause only skin and respiratory infections. Experiment was tested in Georgia and Florida between the 1956 and 1958 through the release of swarms of mosquitoes those act as yellow fever carriers. This experiment was kept as top secret but some reports disclosed that some persons died due yellow fever.

A large scale experiment was conducted during1966 by dissemination of Bacillus subtilis in New York subway in 1966. This pathogen caused the infection among the one million people. Main purpose of this experiment was to check the dissemination of pathogen from point source to spread over the large area.

3.Current status

No confirmed reports regarding biological weapons are available as these are kept highly confidential by the different countries. As per Arms Control Association, USA, report September 2017, nearly 17 countries (Canada, China, Cuba, France, Germany, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Libya, North Korea, Russia, South Africa, Syria, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and the United States) are believed to currently possess biological weapons. Some states have officially declared destruction of their biological weapons, while some has not declared and counter allegations are made by countries in this regard. As far as India is concerned, India in 1997 declared that it possessed 1,044 metric tons of mustard agents and the same has been destroyed by 2009.

3.1  Characteristics of Bio-weapons

• Effective in very small amount and easy to handle
• Easily to transport across the borders
• Develop more virulent strain by exploiting the genetic engineering
• Cost effective and any underdeveloped country can also develop them easily
• Affect more persons than chemicals weapons and long lasting terror
• Easy to acquire, cultivate and disseminate
• Generally self-reproducing and difficult to detect

Types of Bio-Weapons

Bio-weapons are also known as poor man’s atom bomb. On the basis of their ability to cause mortality, they are classified into three categories: Category A, Category B and Category C.

Category A: These are high priority agents as they can be easily transmitted from person to person and cause high mortality e.g: small pox, anthrax, plague.

3.3 Delivery Methods and Mode of Transmission of Biological Weapons

Delivery or dissemination methods play a significant role for the mass destructive potential of the weapon because mass destruction of biological weapon depends upon the delivery method. There are two traditional methods for delivery/dissemination of bio-weapons.

a) Spray devices: Release of bio-weapons through the spray devices require biological agent to be aerosolized. These can be transported through any transport carrier mean and cab be sprayed.

 b) Explosive devices: These contains cluster of bombs. The efficiency of explosive devices is comparatively less to spray devised (1-5 percent) and there is disadvantage of this method as the heat generated during the explosion inactivates the microbes.

Further the spread of biological agents after delivery occurs by various means like inhalation via aerosolization, ingestion, inoculation, vector dissemination etc.

i) Inhalation via Aerosolization Method: In this method, biological agent material is converted in to fine air particles. Aerosolized particles reach the human body through following three sources.

Point Source: In this method, pathogen dissemination source is stable or permanent on fixed position. Japanese experimented different type of biological agent through point source methods during World War 2. Examples are artillery, shells, bomblets and suitcase.

Multiple Point Sources: Pathogens are disseminated from stationary sources with several release points.

Line Sources: This method involves the prolonged release of biological agent from a mobile body. First of all this method was applied in Japan during 1937. In these method cruise missiles, aircraft carrying spray attachments and fixed wings or rotorcraft with attached sprayers for the delivery of pathogen.

ii) Ingestion Method: Water, food and medical materials are contaminated with bio-weapons to cause the diseases in people. Best example for the ingestion attack is contamination of water supply of city to destroy on large scale. There are ample of examples in history and one them is Assyrians contaminated enemy water wells with rye ergot.

 iii) Percutaneous Inoculation Method: In this method, biological material is transferred to human body through the dermal exposure. Percutaneous inoculation is limited and less effective because large areas of damaged skin are rare. This type of accident was happened in US during 2001 through the anthrax spores via postal mail post.

iv) Vector Method: Other organisms are used to carry the pathogens to host. Flies, mosquito and mice are carrier agent for the plague, yellow fever and Hantavirus respectively. Japanese used this method during World War -2 on China by spreading contaminated rice and wheat. Further, the mode of transmission depends on the type of microorganism as below:

Methods for delivery of biotoxins:

Besides following are the methods for the release of biotoxins in environment:

• Gas and aerosol release through airplanes, bombs, missiles and submarines.
• HCN and central burster missiles.
• Poisoned bullets, grenades, arrows and letters.
• Contamination of delivery foods such as coffee, water, creams, juice and more eatables.
• Poisoning the water bodies by addition of microorganisms in specific area.
• Contaminated blankets in war given by soldiers to foe soldiers.

4. Targets Points for bioterrorism

• Big metropolitan cities
• Military camps
• Big urban conglomeration
• Refugee camps
• Areas along international boundaries

4.1.       Terrors Linked To Bioterrorism

• Create fear and subsequent disruption in society.
• Not only hurt physically but also infect the psyche of hapless or innocent humans.
• Generally leads to high mortality or low mortality with moderate-high morbidity.
• Although terrorists ultimately seek to create terror in humans but their activities may produce death or disease in plants and animals as well.
• In future, may be most vicious threat to civilized society.
• Environmental contamination could pose continuing threat.

4.2.  Indicators of bioterrorism

A disease entity that is unusual or that does not occur naturally in a given geographic area, or combinations of unusual disease entities in the same patient populations

• Large numbers of both military and civilian casualties in particular areas
• Data suggesting a massive point-source outbreak
• Apparent aerosol route of infection
• High morbidity and mortality relative to the number of people at risk
• Illness limited to fairly localized or circumscribed geographical areas
• Sentinel dead animals of multiple species

5. Impact Of Bioterrorism On Environment

Main motive of bioterrorists is to harm or kill the human beings. But it also badly affects the environment.

• Degrade the water quality by contaminating it.
• Pollute the air, hence deteriorate its quality.
• Deteriorate the soil quality.
• Cause various diseases among flora and fauna.
• Decrease the biodiversity by killing various animals, plants and other organisms.
• Imbalance in the self-sustaining ecosystem

5.1.  Case Studies

Test by Japanese military in Ping Fan, Manchuria: During the time period of 1932-1945 Japanese military conducted the experiments on war prisoners by using multiple biological agents. In this testing of biological agents on the prisoners 1000 were killed and 2000 injured.

China attack: This attack occurred in11 cities of China during the time period of 1940-42. Cholera biological agent was applied for this purpose by Japanese military. In this attack, 2400 persons were killed and 10,000 injured.

USSR accident: In suburbs of southeast of Sverdlovsk on April 1979, anthrax released during the production of bioweapons accidently. In this accident 68 persons were dead and 300 injured.

US Anthrax Attacks: This attack also known as Amerithrax. It occurred within the US on 18th September, 2001 after one week of 11th September attack through the letters containing the anthrax spores at different places like Washington, DC, New York City, NY, others.

These letters were mailed to some news channels and two Democratic U.S. Senators (figure 1). In this attack, 22 people were infected and out of this 5 were killed. Anthrax spores were transferred into 11 persons through inhalation and in rest 11 through cutaneous.

Afghanistan attack: Islamist terrorists attacked on the police and civilians of Afghanistan in 2010 using the rat poison. In this attack 53 persons were killed and 40 injured.

5.2. Measures to Prevent Bioterrorism

Various effective measures are taken to prohibit the development, production and stockpiling of biological weapons and their transmission. These are discussed in brief as follow:

Hague convention (1907): Usages of biological and chemical weapons are condemned.

Geneva protocol (1925): banned the use of poisonous or other gases usually referred to as chemical weapons as well as use of bacteriological methods of warfare.

Framework of League of Nations (1930): Attempt was made to achieve a complete ban but not successful.

• Biological Weapons Convention (1972): This convention incorporates the Geneva protocol (1925). It was convened to prohibit the development, production and stockpiling of bacteriological and toxin weapons. This was opened for signature on April 10, 1972 and entered into force on March 26, 1975. Signed at Washington, London and Moscow by 103 countries and till date 159 countries have signed the convention & 141have ratified it. After the anthrax mail attacks on USA in 2001, 5th review conference was held during November 2002. During these conferences, the discussions were held to promote common understanding and effective actions on issues related to biological warfare and annual report were submitted to the UN as an additional confidence building measures.
• Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (1975): This convention came in force on 26 March, 1975 for control the development, stockpiling of biological weapons and for their destruction.146 State Parties have been signed including the 5 members of United Nations and India also. Any signatory of this convention never produce, develop any biological agent for destruction and if feels any threat it may complain to the Security Council of the UN.
• The Bioterrorism Act (2002) US: The event of September11, 2001, have forced the federal Govt. of US to pass “Public Health Security and the Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act”
• The first Interpol Global Conference on preventing bioterrorism was held in Lyon on March, 2005.More than 450 delegates from over 150 countries participate in conference
• International Health Regulations, 2005: World Health Assembly adopted the international health guidelines on 23 May 2005 and came in force on 15 June, 2007. Main purpose of these guidelines to protect, control and provide a public health response at international level to prohibit the unwanted interference with international traffic and trade.

6. Indian Scenario

According to the constitution India, health is a state subject and it is primary responsibility of state government to deal with biological disasters. India has good quality defensive biological warfare capabilities because it has both extensive and advanced dual use pharmaceutical industry. India has already ratified biological and toxin weapons convention (1975) and pledge to abide by its obligations. Indian President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam asserted that India will not make biological weapons. It is cruel to human beings. In India, there are also some research labs to grip biological attacks and first lab Defense Research and development Establishment (DRDE) was established by the Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO) located at Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh. Main aim of this lab is studies of toxicology, biochemical pharmacology and development of antibodies against the biological agents like anthrax, brucellosis, cholera, plague, smallpox, botulism, viral hemorrhage fever and many more.

Indian government has some significant efforts to prepare its military force against biological attack and began to prepare to medical personnel to deal with this kind of problems. Indian government increased their interest in this field after receiving doubtful letters believed to containing Bacillus anthracis spores in 2001, but none of them was not positive result. It was just white powder. India’s central industrial force (CSIF) has been established to defend from biological attacks and organize to especially skilled first responders to scene of biological attacks. On 3 June 2015, India and US signed a new 10 year defense framework agreement that includes the work cooperatively to develop defense capabilities and lightweight protective suits effective in biological hazard environment. The following institutions are dealing at various levels for the purpose

National Disaster Management Authority: This authority comes under the Disaster Management act 2005, and seeks to institutionalize mechanisms at district, state and national level for planning, preparing and ensure rapid response to both natural and man- made disasters.

National Crisis Management Committee: This committee is consisting of 14 union secretaries including the Chairman and provides effective coordination and implementation of response in case of disasters.

National Disaster Response Force: This agency has been constituted under the Disaster Management act 2005 for the purpose of the specialized response to disaster situation. Presently NDRF has 8 battalions and positioned at 8 different locations and this force is already trained and equipped to handle to situation.

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare: this is a nodal agency for handling of epidemics and advised by the Technical Advisory Committee under Director General Health Services (DGHS). National Institute of Communicable Diseases is also nodal agency for investigating outbreaks and also provides teaching and research support. Most of states have regional and family welfare centers. MoH & FW responsible for new health sector guidelines and various sachems.

Ministry of Home Affairs: It is a nodal ministry and responsible for assessing the threats and set the different mechanism to face them and provide intelligent inputs. Technical support is provided by MoH & FW.

Ministry of Defense: This ministry has a hospital network to support clinical case management. In serious conditions they have also evacuate facilities by ambulance, aircraft or ships and have mobile hospitals which moved to affected locations to treat on the spot. It is nodal ministry and war related problems are solved by them.

Ministry of Agriculture: All actions are taken for biological disasters regarding to crops, animals and fishes by the Ministry of Agriculture. It attends the biological agents regarding the agro-terrorism and sends the teams collects the sample from site and diagnosed them.

Concluding Remarks

Bioterrorism has had little success in the recent past. The pace of scientific advancement in the field of biotechnology is likely to intensify the threat of bioterrorism. The existing defenses against biological weapons are inadequate. The general public is unaware about the exact nature of threat by biological weapons. So need of hour is to reduce vulnerability to bioterrorism by strengthen planning, detection and surveillance, laboratory analysis, emergency response and communication systems.