15 Bio-pesticides

Dr Gajendra Singh Vishwakarma and Dr. Sunil Mittal

18.1 Introduction

18.2 History of Bio-pesticides

18.3 Classification of Bio-pesticides

18.4 Current status and Global scenario of bio-pesticides

18.5 Advantages of bio-pesticides

18.6 Limitations and constraints of using bio-pesticides

18.7 Remedies for bio-pesticide production, usage and marketing

18.8 Regulatory Framework, Main statues and legal requirements for bio-pesticides

18.9 Experimental Use Permits (EUP), Emergency Exemptions, and State and Local Need Registrations

18.10 Bio-pesticides: Indian scenario

18.11 Bio-pesticides success stories in India

18.12 Regulation and Policies of bio-pesticide usage and promotion in India

18.13 Resources for more information of Bio-pesticides

Bio-pesticides

18.1 Introduction

In the last 5-6 decades, a number of substances or their mixtures have been used for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any insects, rodents, nematodes, fungi, or weeds, or any other forms of life declared to be pests; any substance or mixture of substances intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (USEPA, 2009) has defined these as pesticides. The pesticides has played important role in:

• Controlling pests and plant disease vectors
• Protection of stored grains from pests
• Controlling human/livestock disease vectors & nuisances organisms
• Prevent and control organisms that harm other human activities and structures

Though pesticides are used for control of pests to prevent human and live stock diseases, harm to structures and losses to agriculture, but the term is more commonly used for substances used to manage agricultural pests because of their large scale usage in agricultural fields. The pesticide usage has played very important role in protecting the crops from pests and hence increasing the total crop production.

It has been estimated that worldwide, approximately 9,000 species of insects and mites, 50,000 species of plant pathogens and 8,000 species of weeds damage crops. Further as per estimates, Insect pests, plant pathogens and weeds cause loss of approximate 14%, 13% and 13% respectively to crops every year. Without pesticide application the loss of fruits, vegetables and cereals from pest injury would reach 78%, 54% and 32% respectively each year. Crop loss from pests declines to 35% to 42%, when pesticides are used.

Although pesticides are indispensable for the economic production of agricultural and other material produce; yet, their excessive use has resulted in severe toxicological effects on the environment and living organisms including humans. The indiscriminate use of pesticides has led to:

• Contamination of water reservoirs
• Contamination of soil
• Reduced soil friendly microbes and worms
• Biomagnifications in food chain
• Risks to biodiversity and endangered species
• Human and animal health
• Pest resistance

Pesticide cycle in the environment is discussed graphically in figure 1.

For the survival of human beings on earth, it is mandatory to maintain balance between the agricultural sustainability and environmental safety. The development of alternates that are eco-friendly and can harness the negative effects of chemical pesticides on environment is the major challenge of this era. Bio-pesticides are natural substances that can decrease the dependence on chemical pesticides, impart sustainability to agriculture and provide environmental safety.

In this chapter, a brief discussion is given regarding the history, scenario, resources, benefits, constraints and regulations related to bio-pesticides. Different types of bio-pesticides are discussed in details in next chapter.

Bio-pesticides

Bio-pesticides are those products that are derived from natural products (minerals, bacteria, plants and animals, and are used to control pests and pathogens. USEPA (2008) has defined bio-pesticides as pesticides that contain microbial pesticides, plant incorporated protectants and biochemical pesticides as active ingredient. Throughout the world, there is a confusion regarding the use of term ‘biopesticide’. Therefore, International Biocontrol Manufacturer’s Association (IBMA) and International Organization for Biocontrol (IOBC, 2008) used the term ‘Biocontrol’ as an alternative of Bio-pesticides (Guillon, 2003).

18.2 History of bio-pesticides

Historical background of bio-pesticides dates back to 17th century when the plant extracts of nicotine were used as bio-control against the plum beetles. Another research by Agostine Bassi in 1835 showed that the white-muscadine fungus (Beauveria bassiana) could be used as biological controls against silkworm. In early 19th century, different studies regarding the use of plant based or mineral oils as plant protectants were carried out. With the expansion of agricultural research during the early 20th century, the number of studies and proposal for bio-controls were developed. Among them, the first and most accepted bio-controls were spores of the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). In 1901, Japanese biologist Shigetane Ishiwata isolated Bt from a diseased silkworm. After ten years, Ernst Berliner in Thuringen, Germany, rediscovered it from the diseased caterpillar of flour moth. In 1911, the pathogen Bt was classified as type species Bacillus thuringiensis. In the early 1920s, the French started using Bt as a biological insecticide. The first commercial Bt product i.e. Sporeine was developed by France in 1938.

Another plant based product used widely during 1917 by US Navy was from pyrethrum extracts. They used it with kerosene oil and sprayed for the control of houseflies and mosquitoes. In 1924, Staudinger and Ruzicka, working in Switzerland, reported that the insecticidal properties of pyrethrum are due to the presence of two esters which were named as Pyrethrin I and Pyrethrin II.

In India, under the Insecticide Act, 1968, so far only 12 types of bio-pesticides have been registered. Neem based bio-pesticides, Bacillus thuringensis, NPV and Trichoderma are the major bio-pesticides produced and used in India.

18.3 Classification of Bio-pesticides

Bio-pesticides can be classified in different ways depending on the source organism, active ingredient, mode of action etc. However, the most common classification is based on the source organism and on this basis these can be classified into three major classes as follow

These are discussed in detail in next chapter.

18.4 Current status and Global scenario of bio-pesticides

The bio-pesticides market is comparatively weak as compared to the synthetic pesticides due

to the lack of awareness, inconsistent performance and other constraints of bio-pesticides. However, keeping in view of growing awareness about environmental safety, increasing demand for organic food, initiatives of government etc., the bio-pesticide market is expected to grow at higher rates in future. Currently, global uses of bio-pesticides have been reported growing at a steady rate of 10% annually with production rate of 3,000 ton/annum. In market, bio-pesticides are available in different physical forms like granules, dust, wettable powders and liquid concentrates. Among different types of bio-pesticides, use of microbial bio-pesticides is highest (60%) followed by fungal (27%) and viral (10%) as shown in fig. 2.

Bacillus thuringiensis is the main bacterium used in agricultural field for pest control and accounts for 90% of the microbial bio-pesticides. Bt based products claim approximately 53% of world biopesticide market and out of total 50% products are consumed only in America. Over 200 and 60 bio-pesticides are available in the US and EU market respectively. However, Asia lags behind and its bio-pesticides usage accounts to only 5% of total bio-pesticides sold globally. Worldwide bio-pesticide sales are mentioned in table 1:

Source: Kumini (2007) and Kabaluk et al. (2010)

18.5 Advantages of bio-pesticides

Bio-pesticides control pests in an eco-friendly and non-toxic manner. They cause less harm to ecosystem as compared to chemical pesticides. These offer the following advantages:

1. Zero or little residual effect: Residues of microbial Bio-pesticides produce no adverse effects on living beings
2. Applicability in organic farming and potential to be used as a part of Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
3. Less chances to develop resistance by pests: Narrow range of action that contributes to specificity towards a particular insect pest.
4. Biodegradable in nature
5. Effective in low concentration and provide pest control over generations.
6. Non toxic nature along with non-pathogenicity towards targets.
7. These do not affect eco-friendly insects such as pollinators and soil micro flora, hence help in improving the plant growth and crop yield.

18.6 Limitations and constraints of using bio-pesticides

• Most of the microbial and biochemical bio-pesticides cannot be used alone for the complete replacement of conventional pesticides. Therefore, these bio-pesticides are used as components of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) so as to decrease the utilization of conventional pesticides up to a greater extent.
• Bio-pesticides have to be used in rotation with conventional ones, helps to prevent pest resistant problems.
• As bio-pesticide is totally a live organism, it is important to maintain the vigor and microbial load.
• Sophisticated equipments are required for the production of quality bio-pesticides.
• Their market performance is very poor as the quality of bio-pesticides produced is not good.
• In many of the cases, bio-pesticides that are sold in the market are contaminated and microorganism count is also low which results in poor performance.
• The market for bio-pesticides is not well established like markets for chemical pesticides.
• Due to lack of wide spread studies and consistent results, farmers get confused whether they should adopt bio-pesticides or not.
• Pesticide storage require specific instruments and environmental conditions which are very costly and can not be afforded by farmers, shopkeepers and sellers.
• Budget required for bio-pesticides production is high as Hi Tech instruments are required.
• Since the bio-pesticides contain live micro-organisms, these are considered as
• Import and export of bio-pesticides is much difficult as compared to chemical pesticides

18.7 Remedies for bio-pesticide production, usage and marketing

• Adulteration should be avoided during packaging of bio-pesticides.
• Bio-pesticides should have restricted entry intervals. It means that when the field is sprayed with a pesticide, how much should be the time limit so that workers can again come back to the field.
•  Bio-pesticides should have no harvest restrictions. Harvest restriction refers to the time period between the application of pesticide and harvesting and marketing of treated crop. This will provide better flexibility to the farmers during harvesting.
• Lyophilized and dried preparations of bio-pesticides should be used to achieve viability and stability of biological products.
• The registration of bio-pesticides is expensive compared to their production which poses major hurdle in their development. The problems related to their registration should be addressed.
• There is need to carry benefit and risk assessment studies of bio-pesticides. The bio-pesticides should be approved or registered on the basis of the results of risk assessment studies.
• The developed bio-pesticide strain should be monitored extensively to access its threats to the consumer and environment.
• Microbial bio-pesticides should be protected from contamination in order to improve the shelf life.
• Liquid formulations should be avoided and more attention should be given towards dry formulations. Sustainable and controlled release of biopesticide is also necessary.
• Pathogenicity and virulence of some microbial strains can be improved using biotechnological tools.
• There are some aspects such as resistance, potential of dispersion and persistence should be studied thoroughly.

18.8 Regulatory Framework, Main statues and legal requirements for bio-pesticides

EPA regulates the use of pesticides under the authority of two federal statutes: the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). Finally, the Pesticide Registration Improvement Act (PRIA) establishes pesticide registration service fees for registration actions in the three registering divisions of EPA’s Office of Pesticide Programs. Registration of bio-pesticides is facilitated by bio-pesticides and Pollution Prevention Division (BPPD). This division is responsible for the promotion of the safe use of pesticides, as well as bio-pesticides. EPA encourages the growth and employment of those bio-pesticides that serve as an alternate to conventionally used chemical pesticides. EPA requires minimum data for the registration of a bio-pesticide in comparison to the registration of conventional bio-pesticide. Moreover, EPA takes less time for the assessment of bio-pesticides. Since bio-pesticides take less data and registration time, but still EPA carries out rigorous reviews to make it sure that pesticides will not produce adverse effects on living beings and environment. The registrants have to submit a diversity of data including the composition, degradation, toxicity and other features of pesticide.

18.9 Experimental Use Permits (EUP), Emergency Exemptions, and State and Local Need Registrations

• Field testing is often necessary to evaluate the efficacy of a pesticide. Any food crop that is affected during the testing must be destroyed or consumed only by experimental animals unless tolerance has been established.
• For small-scale field tests of genetically modified microbial pesticides or non-indigenous microbial pesticides that United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has not previously acted upon, applicants must submit a notification to EPA for determination of whether an experimental use permit is necessary, even if the testing is on less than 10 acre.
• Under Section 18 of FIFRA, Federal or State agencies may request limited approval for an unregistered use of a currently registered pesticide product or the use of an unregistered pesticide product. Such a request can only be granted when there is a potentially severe economic or human health impact and no other alternatives are available for pest control.
• Before a pesticide can be marketed and used in the United States, FIFRA requires that EPA evaluate the proposed pesticide to assure that its use will not pose unreasonable risks of harm to human health and the environment, including non-target species. This involves an extensive review of health and safety information. Pesticide registration is also the process through which EPA examines the ingredients of a pesticide; the site or crop on which it is to be used; the amount, frequency, and timing of its use; and storage and disposal instructions. A pesticide cannot legally be used, sold, or distributed if it has not been registered.
• Additionally, the Agency recommends that registrants request a pre-submission meeting with the appropriate registering branch. The pre-submission meeting is an excellent opportunity to discuss products in development and steps to ensure a timely registration decision. All information exchanged at these meetings is held confidential until a pesticide registration submission is made.

18.10 Bio-pesticides: Indian scenario

Bio-pesticides account for 2.89% of total pesticide market in India. It is expected that there will be an annual increment of about 2.3% in the upcoming years in bio-pesticide market. Under the Insecticide Act 1968, only 12 bio-pesticides have been registered till date. Trichoderma, Bacillus thuringensis,and Neem based pesticides, are the major biopesticides that are produced and used in India listed in table 2..

18.11 Bio-pesticides success stories in India

Indian agriculture includes some successful stories about the utilization of bio-pesticides/Biocontrol agents:

• Diamond back moths were controlled by Bacillus thuringiensis
• Helicoverpa attack on tomato, cotton and pigeon pea was controlled by Bacillus thuringiensis
• Mealy Bugs, mango hoppers and coffee pod borer were kept under control by Beauveria
• Gram crop was protected from the infestation of Helicoverpa by nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV)
• Attack of sugarcane borers was controlled by Trichogramma
• Rots and wilts in various crops were controlled by the use of Trichoderma based products.

18.12 Regulation and Policies of bio-pesticide usage and promotion in India

Indian government is promoting several rules, regulations, schemes and policies for the promotion of production, research, adoption and registration of bio-pesticides. Department of Biotechnology (DBT) is the head institute that provides funding for the research and production of bio-pesticides. DBT supports 22 bio-control production facilities while Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) supports 31. Insecticide Act 1968 has been amended so as to simplify the registration process and allow quick development and invention of bio-pesticides.

Indian government has made certain policies and acts for the promotion and regulation of pesticides including bio-pesticides.

1) The Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914: an act to prevent the introduction into and the transport from one state to another in India of any insects, fungus or other pest which is or may be destructive to crops.

 2) The Insecticide act, 1968: This act regulates the import, manufacture, sale, transport, distribution and use of insecticides with a view to prevent risk to human beings or animals, and for matters connected therewith.

 3) Insecticides Rules, 1971: The main objectives are the functioning of board, registration committee and laboratory, registration of insecticides, grant of licenses, packaging and labeling, appointment of insecticide analysts and insecticide inspectors, transport and storage of insecticides in transit by road, water and rail. These rules also take into account the provisions regarding protective clothing, equipment and other facilities for workers during the manufacture of insecticides.

 4) The Plants, Fruits and Seeds Order, 1989 (Act): Regulation of import into India.

 5) Promotion of  Integrated  Pest  Management,  1991: promotion  of  use  of  bio-pesticides: neem based pesticides, bacillus based bio-pesticides, insect pathogen as alternative to chemical pesticides.

 6) The Destructive Insects and Pest (Amendment and Validation) Act, 1992.

 7) National Agriculture Policy, 2000: The policy aims to attain

• growth rate in excess of 4% per annum in the agriculture sector,
• growth based on conservation of soil, water and biodiversity,
• growth with equality
• growth that is demand driven and caters the small markets and maximizes benefits from exports of agricultural products in the face of the challenges arising from economic liberalization and globalization,
• growth that is sustainable technologically, environmentally and economically.

 8) National Policy for Farmers, 2007

18. 13 Resources for more information of Bio-pesticides

1.Literature is available without any cost on World Wide Web (www).

2.There are several online services and databases that have been developed only to provide beneficial data to researchers and farmers. The services and database that are known till date are:

• International Biocontrol Manufacturers Association (IBMA): Association of manufactures and international organizations is the main objective of IBMA. It provides information on the website: http://www.ibma.ch/news.html.
• Online Information Service for Non-chemical Pest Management in the Tropics (OISAT): Main aim of this service is to cut down the use of harmful pesticides and provide more protected alternates to needy farmers. (www.oisat.org)
• The International Organization for Biological Control: this organization is having affiliation with International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). It is a non-profitable organization that establishes biological control quality standards.
• Bio-pesticide Industry Alliance: this industry is involved in the facilitation of development and commercialization of pesticides from natural products and their acceptance at global level.
• The bio-pesticides Database (BPDB): This database is related to the basic things such as identification, toxicological and physiochemical data for pesticides used in agricultural field. (http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/bpdb/index.html)