34 Wetlands Conservation

Shiv Pratap Raghuvanshi

epgp books

 

 

Objectives

 

1.  To understand the ecology of the wetlands and their contribution to human well-being.

2.  To understand various government policies and initiatives for conservation of wetlands.

3.  To develop an ability to understand issues related to best practices in wetland management and biodiversity conservation

4.  To be able to prepare an inventory and management plan for wetland conservation.

 

Wetland Conservation – General introduction

 

Wetlands play an important role in ecosystem functioning. Their management, governance and conservation however remain neglected not because of awareness but due to lack of capacity and complexities involved in their assessment of management needs. Wetlands contributes a lot to the benefits of ecosystem and environment as a whole by providing numerous ecological goods and services but remain under tremendous threat, owing to human interferences e.g., agricultural intensification, rapid urbanization, industrialization, decline in the hydrological, economic and ecological functions they perform and thus their area shrink over the period of time and sometimes may leads to collapsing of wetlands. Wetlands, the most productive system, categorized as Protected Areas in India are mostly governed by the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. Central Government has also published Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2016 to regulate activities within wetlands in India. A common feature of all wetlands is that they are having two common characteristics: Water or ice and earth. A wetland may be found in Coasts, estuaries, flood plains or swamps or marshes or can be observed as shallow lakes. Biodiversity studies on aquatic eco systems are mostly restricted to a few charismatic fish species, aquatic plants, water birds which is an impediment to the conservation of wetlands. This module on Wetland Management and Conservation shall focus on the needs and approaches to Wetland management and their conservation in India.

 

I. DEFINITIONS RELATED TO WETLANDS

 

Wetlands: Various definitions of ‘Wetlands’:

 

In general terms as “Wetlands is termed as “lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the surface or the land is covered by shallow water” [Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2010; Shabbir, 2016].

 

As per Ramsar Convention for Wetlands, Wetlands are termed as “ areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, flowing fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tides does not exceed six meters” (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2010]

 

A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem [Groot et al. 2006].

 

As per, General Statutory Rules, GSR385(E) that is issued by Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change (MoEF&CC) and is published in Gazette of India: Wetland refers to ecosystems located at the interface of land and water and wherein water plays a dominant role in controlling plant and animal life and associated ecosystem processes, and includes, as well, all inland and coastal waters, these can be lakes, backwaters, reservoirs, tanks, estuaries, lagoons, creeks and manmade wetlands. But it should be noted that wetlands does not include river channels and paddy fields [GSR385(E) The Gazette of India, 2016; www.livemint.com, 2017].

 

II. Types and Classification of Wetlands:

 

Primary   factor   that   distinguishes   wetlands   from   other   land   forms   or   water   bodies   is                the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, [Ramsar Convention, 2010; www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wetland, 2017] adapted to the unique hydric soil.

 

Following one or more attributes are considered as necessary for an area to be classified as a wetland:

 

•  Land supports the plants or animals that are adapted to & are dependent on living in wet conditions for atleast part of their life cycle (at-least periodically).

 

•   Substratum is predominantly undrained soils that are saturated, flooded or ponded long enough to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper layers.

 

•   Soil with saturated, flooded/ long enough standing water in pond leading to anaerobic conditions development in upper layers & where substratum maintains predominantly undrained soils.

 

•   Also area with attributes where substratum is not soil but substratum is saturated with water, or covered by water, sometimes.

 

Two basic types of wetlands are considered – man-made wetlands and natural wetlands. Naturally occurring wetlands may occur in many different forms e.g., Inland wetlands and Coastal wetlands. Inland wetlands may also be grouped as Himalayan wetlands and Indo-Gangetic wetlands. Himalayan wetlands includes Ladhak and Zanskar; Kashmir valley; Central Himalayas and Eastern Himalayas. Indo-Gangetic wetlands extending from river Indus in west to Brahmaputra in east. This also includes wetlands of Himalayan Terai and Indo-gangetic plans.

 

Two categories (Inland wetlands and Coastal wetlands) further can be distinguished further broadly as:

 

Natural inland wetlands include: lakes, ponds, cut-off meander, high altitude wetlands, riverine wetlands, waterlogged areas, rivers and streams (Fig. 1).

 

Man-made inland wetlands include: surface reservoirs, tanks, water logged areas, and salt pans.

 

Natural coastal wetlands include: lagoons, creeks, sand beach, mud flats, salt marsh, mangroves, and coral reefs.

 

Man-made coastal wetlands include: salt pan and aquaculture ponds.

 

A cycle of wetting and drying is necessary for some wetlands to be healthy and sustained. Wetlands that dry out periodically can be the most biologically diverse wetlands [Oates, 1994]. Advantage of this natural wetting and drying cycle is that it changes pH levels of soils and leads to increase in availability of nutrients to plants [Mitsch & Gosselink, 2000]. It is worth noting that re-flooding of a dry wetland also helps production of plant material which can be good food to various insects and animals [DNRE, 1997]. Hydrological conditions also affect nutrient cycling. Wetlands that have water flowing through them or in pulses have highest rate of nutrient cycling [Mitsch & Gosselink, 2000].

 

III.  Wetland Ecology (Vegetation, Soils, Flora and Fauna) Wetland Vegetation

 

Wetland plant species often exhibit distinct adaptations that allow a greater tolerance and survival in wetland areas. Adaptations enable wetland plants to live in low oxygen (anaerobic) soils, and various species (such as some seagrasses) are capable of living permanently submerged in water (Fig 1). There are four broad categories of wetland vegetation:

 

a.      Floating,

b.      Free-floating,

c.       Floating attached

d.      Submerged

 

a. Floating wetland plants: include both free-floating plants that are unattached (floating on the water surface) and plants that are attached to the wetland substrate (known as floating attached plants).

 

b.  Free-floating wetland plants: include native species such as Azolla filiculoides (Pacific azolla) and Lemna sp. and a number of wetland weeds such as Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth), Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce) and Salvinia molesta (salvinia).

 

c. Floating attached wetland plants: include species such as Nymphoides indica (water snowflake), Monochoria cyanea (monochoria) and Ludwigia peploides (water primrose).

 

d. Submerged wetland plants : includes plants that are rooted in the wetland substrate or are free-floating. In both cases the leaves and stems remain submerged.

Functions of wetland vegetation

 

Wetland plants play a vital role in wetland ecology and perform a number of significant functions including:

 

•  maintaining water quality by filtering out nutrients and sediments

•  providing food, shelter and breeding habitat for fauna

•  preventing erosion

•  competing for nutrients that can reduce the frequency and severity of algal blooms

•  shading riparian zones [Allen, 2000].

 

Wetland flora and fauna:

 

Some of the examples of plants found in abundance in different categories of wetland are Nymphoides indica (water snowflake), Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth), Monochoria cyanea (monochoria), Salvinia molesta (salvinia), Azolla filiculoides (Pacific azolla) and Lemna sp., Ludwigia peploides (water primrose), Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce), etc. [www.arc.agric.za, 2017]. Aquatic plant, over 1200 species are found in India [Gopal & Sah, 1995]. Wetlands are also resting nests of migratory birds and available vegetation is a beneficial food for wetland fauna especially for water fowl including migratory waterfowl.

 

Wetland plays a significant role in irrigation, aquaculture especially fish production (contributing almost 60% of tolta country production) in India. Some of the examples of Animals found in abundance in different categories of wetland are fish, molluscs, odonates, rotifers etc.Namingly few Avifauna are Little Gerbe, Snake bird, Night Heron, Egret, Cormorant, Openbill Stork, Pin tail, Wigeon, Common Buzzard,etc. Along with Wetlands support animal life as well for example endangered Sangai (brow- antlered deer of Manipur) survives on the Phumdi (floating mat of vegetation in loktak lake); Western Ghats, Bharatpur sanctuary, Rann of Kutch supports migratory birds (e.g., white tailed lapwing, sind sparrow, rock eagle owl, Great white Pelicans etc).

 

Wetland soils

 

Soils can be powerful indicators of wetland dynamics because of the specific soil features that can develop in wet, oxygen-poor environments [Dear & Svensson, 2007]. Soils can be a reflection of the physical processes occurring in the wetland (for example, water inflow, water chemistry, filtering of pollutants). Wetland soils impact directly on other wetland characteristics (e.g. water quality, fauna, vegetation) [EPA, 2006]. Soils found in wetland areas (or areas that were once wetlands) typically have distinct properties that allow some form of identification and understanding of current or previous inundation regimes [Dear & Svensson, 2007]. General soil indicators that are used to identify a wetland soil are:

•  accumulation of organic matter (e.g. peat)

•  gleyed (greenish-blue-grey) soil colours

•  soil mottling (the presence of more than one soil colour in the same soil horizon)

•  iron or manganese segregations

•  oxidising root channels and soil pore linings

•  reduction of sulfur and carbon (e.g. acid sulfate soil) [EPA, 2006].

 

IV. Wetland Importance and Threats

 

Wetlands cover an utmost significant area of planet Earth. On a global estimate this area is 1280 million hectares (i.e., equivalent to approximately 9% of land surface). India currently has 26 sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites), with a surface area of 689,131 hectares (Table 1) [Shabbir, 2016]. It is estimated that wetland cover approximately on an estimated of 1-5% of the geographical area in India, and it is also an estimate that this area support approximately one-fifth of the known biodiversity [SAC, 2011]. Geographical extent of wetlands in India is well distributed extending from Himalayas to Deccan plateau [Bassi et. al., 2014]. Proportionately, Gujarat has the highest geographical area proportion (17.5%) with Mizoram maintain the lowest proportion (0.66%). In Union Territories in India, Lakshadweep has the highest geographical area proportion under wetlands (around 96%) and Chandigarh has the least geographical area proportion (3%) of geographical area under wetlands [Bassi et. al., 2014]. As per an estimate India have about 757.06 thousand wetlands covering a total wetland area of 15.3mha. In India wetland category-wise can be understood as inland wetlands accounts for 69%, coastal wetlands 27%, and other wetlands (smaller than 2.25 ha) 4% [SAC, 2011]. In all these categories, natural coastal wetlands have the largest area [Bassi et. al., 2014].

 

Wetlands are considered amongst the most productive ecosystems on the Earth [Germandi et. al., 2008]. Wetland are important for human existence, social and cultural diversities, ecosystem health and maintaining biodiversity by being natural buffer for natural disasters, Kidney of landscape, Biological supermarket and liquid Assets [FMS Handbook, 2011]. These provide nourishment to dwelling flora and fauna [Germandi et. al., 2008]. Major services by these wetlands are maintaining nutrient balance, biodiversity maintenance, flood control, retention of toxins and pollutants, groundwater recharge and carbon sequestration [Turner et. al., 2000] along with silt capture, water for irrigation, aquaculture, fisheries, human domestic and livestock consumption. Presents various services and benefits that are and can be derived from our Wetlands are mentioned in Table 2. This exhibits the sincere importance of wetlands as an essential component of our ecosystem and Environment as a whole.

 

There are various ways Wetlands support human’s well-being, e.g., wetlands act as kidney ‘kidneys of landscape’; since these ecosystem receive inflow of water and waste from various upstream sources. Wetlands help in stabilizing water supplies, they cleanse polluted waters, along-with protect shorelines and most importantly recharge groundwater aquifers. Wetlands are also considered ‘biological supermarkets’ [www.sandrp.wordpress.com, 2017] as well, due to availability of extensive food chain and biological diversity in wetlands. Wetlands, being vital for human existence, maintain a highly productive and important portion of our natural wealth and “liquid assets” [www.sandrp.wordpress.com, 2017], along with have special attributes to cultural heritage for humanity. Despite their tremendous value for extending food security for humans, life support for a range of plants and animals (biodiversity) and water content of area, where they are found available, wetlands still are among one of the most rapidly degrading ecosystems.

 

Various threats that are identified for wetland sustenance are natural system modification, Human settlements (non-agricultural), biological resource use, pollution from different sources, agriculture and aquaculture, invasive and other problematic species and genes, transportation and service corridors, water regulation, human intrusion and disturbances, climate change and stressful weather, energy production and mining Geological events. Intense grazing and uncontrolled fishing are another threats to wetlands in our country. Another type of threats are encroachment of reservoir area for various activities for example, urban development, excessive diversion of water for agriculture etc. [Verma, 2001]. Major threat is loss wetlands by human intervention. Loss of wetland in India can be divided into two broad groups i.e., acute wetland losses and chronic wetland losses. Abrupt change in ecosystem or wetland e.g., filling up of water covered areas with soil is considered as acute loss whereas the example of chronic loss can be a slow and gradual elimination of forest cover from the wetland with subsequent erosion and filling up by sediments in the wetlands over period of time, say, many decades. It is worth noting, in reference to the wetland conservation that due to activities like agriculture, dam construction and other activities approx 5000km2 of wetlands are lost annually [McAllister et. al., 2001]. Wetland processes that should be managed or protected include:

•  hydrology

•  food webs

•  habitats

•  nutrient cycling

•  sediment trapping and stabilization

 

Multiple-use water services (including Flood control)

 

 

V.WETLAND CONSERVATION:

 

Healthy and sustainable wetlands are must for a vast country like India hence conservation is the only key to it. Wetlands are a vital part of our waterways and contribute to the health of our coastal resources (such as sea grass beds, fisheries production) by improving the quality of water flowing from the catchments to the sea. Loss of any interlinked component in ecosystem is not a positive sign for health sustenance. It can be understood with a relation [Footelee et. al.,1996] e.g., in India, loss of 1Km2 of wetlands with higher population will have much greater impacts than loss of 1Km2 of wetlands in low population areas of abundant wetlands [Wylynko,1999]. It is interesting to understand that for sustained conservation of wetlands inflow and outflow of water from different source plays an important role. e.g., main types of inflows can be groundwater, rainfall, flooding rivers, tidal influences and surface flows (e.g. crops-farm runoff and irrigation tail-water) etc. Main types of outflows from a wetland can be evaporation from standing surface or running water, the seepage to ground-water (aquifer recharge), water evaporated to atmosphere by plants (called evapo-transpiration), water held in soils and sediments, overland or channel flows.

 

In terms of Carbon storage and sequestration wetlands plays a miraculously incredible role. Sediments in wetland act as long term stores of carbon while biomass (plants, bacteria, fungi and animals) and dissolved components in wetland waters (surface and groundwater) act as short term C-storage [Pant et. al., 2003]. Wetland may be the contributor of global methane emissions, but they contains highest carbon density (among terrestrial ecosystems) with greater potentials for additional C-sequestration [Pant et. al.,2003], based on different studies, during survey, it can be estimated that soils and organic matter in wetlands may contain 200 times more carbon than its vegetation, hence it is important in reference with wetlands conservation to avoid removing soil beneath water surface. IPCC, 2000 have estimated that restored wetlands’ (in over 50 year periods) carbon sequestration potential is about 0.4 tonnes C/ha/year [IPCC, 2000]. Mangroves are able to sequester approx 1.5 metric tonne of C/ha/year [Kathiresan & Thakur, 2008; http://mangroveactionproject.org, 2017]. Wetlands function as net sequesters or producers of GHGs, this sequestration characteristic depends on their bio-geo-chemical processes and hydrology [Bassi et. al., 2014; Lisha, 2017].

 

Awareness is another important tool for achieving sustainable success in most of environment systems and conservation related activities. The experts, policy makers and professionals with advance knowledge on Wetlands must bring forward programs, seminars, open discussions etc among general public especially those living in vicinity and those who can be interested parties in dealing and protecting wetlands.

 

Self rejuvenation by nature is another strategy for wetland conservation. Nature has capacity to rejuvenate its natural systems, considering system is left aloof from any interference other than Nature by itself. Wetlands are threatened by human interference e.g., degradation and reclamation of the wetland area. Degradation can be due to activities like drainage of water (clean and wastewater), landfill, pollution, alteration in hydrology, over-exploitation that leads to loss of biodiversity and disruption in ecosystem services provided by them [www.moef.nic.in, 2017]. Wetlands slow the passage of water and encourage the deposition of nutrients and sediments thereby improving water quality downstream. Wetlands are natural buffers and act as shield against increasing risk of floods, droughts and tropical cyclones. In addition, these ecosystem acts as sponges by storing peak rainfall and releasing water gradually during lean season [https://sandrp.wordpress.com, 2017]. Another important conservation strategy can be indepth study of aquatic Eco-system of these Bio-diverse wetlands without restriction to a few economical beneficial flora-fauna namely, fish species, aquatic plants, water birds that are identified in an around these wetland.

 

Major step in Wetlands Conservation Programs may include inventory & mapping of wetland types, locations and associated regional ecosystems (REs); mapping of wetlands feeding river courses; water resources management; flora and fauna survey and inventorisation including habitat mapping, Remote Sensing or GIS based mapping of interconnectivity of wetlands. Maintaining Wetlands will sustainably delivers a diverse and wider range of important services for example, water-purification, recreational activities & opportunities, coastal protection, water-supply, aquatic fauna including fish and fiber, and increasingly, tourism) that are vital for human well-being (Fig 2). Fig 2 explains assessment basic steps for wetland conservation that may include, Inventory of Class/type of wetland; Status of vegetation, mapping etc. Further it is important to conserve wetland against degradation, de-vegetation, eutrophication, climate change and similar lethal phenomenon for water-bodies. It is expected that increasing phenomenon of global climate change will further exacerbate the loss of terrestrial water storage capacity of wetland leading to sea level rise; degradation of wetland biodiversity including species (e.g., migratory species) that cannot relocate or migrate since they rely more or less on existing wetlands for different stages of their life cycle.

 

Seriousness and accountability for implementation and conformity among government policies in all related areas of development, planning and economics of environment nature conservation, can be policy related steps to avoid deterioration of these wetlands hence conservation can be expected. In addition, good governance and management of these wetlands can also leads to significant conservation of these water-bodies called wetlands. As a part of their Corporate Social Responsibilities towards society and Environment, Industrial establishments including Private organizations, corporate houses may initiate various programs with employees and community participation to conserve these wetlands.

 

Impacts of climate change, hydrological regime alteration also adversely impacts wetlands hence general steps to avoid climate change and hydrology of ecosystem locally and globally may support conservation as well. For example, locally burning of trashes, setting up fires in landfills sites, forests, moderate use of automobiles to avoid combustion of fossil fuels, explosive and crackers on festivities, less use of fertilizers, chemicals- insecticides pesticides etc in crop fields, conservation of ground water, maintaining good health of riverine systems may support wetlands conservation as well. Globally conserving water bodies and their hydrology, sustainable management of forests, avoiding combustion of fossil fuels, avoiding chemicals spraying on crops to eliminate pest and insects, control of pollution and leakages from landfill or contaminated sites to water-bodies, ban on encroachment of water bodies etc. may support wetlands conservation.

 

V. Government of India Initiatives to Conserve Wetlands

 

National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP) is an initiative of Government of Indian in combined collaboration with concerned state governments. NWCP have identified 115 wetlands that are considered areas of utmost conservation and management.

 

NWCP was operationalised with following salient objectives for wetland conservation:

 

1.      To lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of wetlands in the country

2.      To undertake intensive conservation measures in priority wetlands

 

World Wetlands Day is celebrated on 2nd February each year to mark the Day the Convention on Wetlands was adopted in the Iranian City of Ramsar in 1971. India being one of 169 nations’ signatories to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, which is an intergovernmental treaty that provides framework for national action and international cooperation for wise use of Wetlands and their resources conservation. In Fig 3 Ramsar sites, the wetlands of International importance that have been identified globally [De Groot et. al., 2006] have been presented. In Fig 3 percent of total Ramsar sites with their numbers globally [De Groot et. al., 2006] have been also presented in parenthesis. There are almost 26 Ramsar sites spread across India (Fig 4). This spread is from Deepor Beel in Assam to Nal Sarovar in Gujarat, from Wular Lake in Jammu & Kashmir to Ashtamudi Wetland in Kerala [https://sandrp.wordpress.com, 2017].

 

 

Ramsar Convention defines wise use of wetlands as “the maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem approaches, within the context of sustainable development” [https://facebook.com, 2017]. Wise Use can thus be seen as the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands and all the services they provide, for the benefit of people and nature [DeGroot et al., 2006].

 

Government of India, on 26th September 2017, notified a new set of rules known as Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017, replacing the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010. New notification decentralizes wetlands management by giving states powers to not only identify and notify wetlands within their jurisdictions but also keep a watch on prohibited activities. These rules will also indirectly widens the ambit of permitted activities by inserting the ‘wise use’ principle, giving powers to state-level wetland authorities to decide what can be allowed in larger interest.

Another key feature of this Wetland Management 2017 rules is decentralisation of conservation with state governments have been given a bigger role, through the setting up of a State Wetlands Authority in each state. States and UTs have been directed to prepare lists of wetlands within 3 months of the publication of the rules, and to start work on implementing the rules. A National Wetlands Committee has been formed at the centre. As per the new rules, the ‘wide use principle,’ shall govern the management of wetlands, as determined by the wetlands authority.

 

It is worth to mention that under Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 rules, no water body was notified as a wetland, though one was already recognized by centre government and Ramsar Convention [www.zeebiz.com, 2017]. It is worth to mention that in its initiatives towards conservation and Management of identified Wetlands, Central Government had also provided Rs 146.94 crore to different States and other organizations [https://sandrp.wordpress.com, 2017]. In addition, Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 still maintains same rules on prohibited activities. Prohibited activities of wetlands are like [https://sandrp.wordpress.com, 2017]: -Wetland reclamation

 

–  Dumping of solid waste

–  Prohibition of setting up of new industries

–  Existing industries expansion

–  Prohibition of manufacturing / handling / storage or disposal of hazardous substances

–  Untreated wastes and effluents discharge from industries, cities, towns and other human settlements -Prohibition of construction of any nature – permanent or temporary

–  Prohibition of any other activities that may impact the wetlands ecosystems adversely

 

VI Learning Outcomes

 

After going through this module students will develop an understanding of values, functioning and conservation of wetland ecosystems and different aspects of wetland management planning that will aid governance. This module will be useful to students aspiring higher studies and career paths that involves environment Management, environment sciences, environment engineering, water resources management, assessment of aquatic biodiversity and governance of wetland management.

you can view video on Wetlands Conservation

REFERENCES

 

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  • De Groot, R.S., Stuip, M.A.M., Finlayson, C.M. & Davidson, N. (2006). Valuing wetlands: guidance for valuing the benefits derived from wetland ecosystem services, Ramsar Technical Report No. 3/CBD Technical Series No. 27. Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Gland, Switzerland & Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal, Canada
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  • Kathiresan, K., Thakur, S. (2008). Mangroves for the Future: National Strategy and Action Plan, India.
  • Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi [Revised Draft].
  • Lisha T. (2017). Mapping of wetlands in Coastal regulatory Zones CRZ of Mumbai Island , M.Sc. Dissertation Thesis (M2015DM014), Tata Institute of Social Sciences
  • McAllister, D.E., Craig, J.F., Davidson, N., Delany, S., Seddon, M. (2001). Biodiversity Impacts of Large Dams. International Union for Conservation of Nature and United Nations Environmental Programme, Gland and Nairobi.
  • Mitsch W J & Gosselink J G. (2000). ‘Wetlands’: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Canada.
  • Oates N. (1994). ‘Managing your wetland: a practical guide for landholders’: Victorian Wetlands Trust Inc and Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria.
  • Pant,  H.K.,  Rechcigl,  J.E.,  Adjei,  M.B.  (2003).  Carbon  sequestration  in  wetlands:  concept  and estimation. Food Agric. Environ. 1 (2): 308–313.
  • Ramsar Convention Secretariat (2010). Wise use of wetlands: Concepts and approaches for the wise use of wetlands. Ramsar handbooks for the wise use of wetlands, 4th edition, Vol. 1. Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Gland, Switzerland.
  • Shabbir S. (2016). International Law Relating to Wetland Conservation and its Enforcement in India Since 1981. PhD Thesis, Dept of Law, AMU, Aligarh India
  • Space Applications Centre (SAC) (2011). National Wetland Atlas. SAC, Indian Space Research Organisation, Ahmedabad.
  • Turner, R.K., van der Bergh, J.C.J.M., Soderqvist, T., Barendregt, A., van der Straaten, J., Maltby, E., van Ierland, E.C. (2000). Ecological-economic analysis of wetlands: scientific integration for management and policy. Ecol. Econ. 35 (1), 7–23.
  • Verma, M. (2001). Economic Valuation of Bhoj Wetlands for Sustainable Use. [EERC Working Paper Series: WB-9]. Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal.
  • Wylynko, D. (Ed.), (1999). Prairie Wetlands and Carbon Sequestration: Assessing Sinks Under the Kyoto Protocol. International Institute for Sustainable Development, Manitoba, Canada.

 

Website references:

 

 

Courtesy for using figures for this module

 

Fig 1 : https://sandrp.wordpress.com/category/wetlands-2/

Fig 4 : http://www.moef.nic.in, 2017; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland, 2017