20 Water Resources -Planning and Development-II

Amarjit Singh

epgp books

 

Objectives

 

1.      To learn about the needs for development of water resources.

2.      To know water resources and sustainable development.

3.      To explain water resources, sustainable development and regional issues.

4.      To know development of water resources in India.

 

Introduction

 

In the previous module on Water Resources – Planning and Development-I we have studied about the planning of water resources and methods to enhance the efficiency of water use in different sectors. In this module (module on Water Resources – Planning and Development–II) we shall explore different aspects for the development of water resources to have their sustainable use.

 

Societies have been extracting vast quantity of water from lakes, wetlands, rivers and underground water resources to meet their demands for domestic, agricultural and industrial activities. Freshwater ecosystems not only provide economically valuable commodities, but many services to the society beyond simply direct water supply. These services include flood control, water purification, fish production, habitat for plants and animals and several other marketable goods. Degradation of these systems means breakdown of the services provided by these natural resources. Therefore, any planning for these freshwater resources must include provision for maintaining the integrity of these ecosystems, including the need to maintain minimum in-stream flows and to anticipate the impact of hydrological modifications on downstream environment (Flint et al.1996).

 

As the human population will increase in future along with acceleration in urbanization, industrialization and commercial development, the demand for freshwater resources will intensify (Flint and Houser, 2001). On the other hand, the capacity of water resources is declining due to over-exploitation, inappropriate agricultural practices, pollution and wastage. A large proportion of the world’s population is already experiencing water stress and the rising demand of water for different purposes shall greatly outweigh the green house warming effect in defining the state of global water systems to 2025 (Vorosmarty et al. 2000). Humans have been using more than 50 % of the available fresh water in this world and a larger share is being wasted. Many countries are engaged in conflict for decades over water rights. The declining quantity and quality of water can lead to global hunger resulting in civil unrest and even war sometimes in future.

 

There are clear evidences that climate change shall have an impact on rainfall pattern, evaporation and extreme events in near future. The policy makers should opt for developmental plans of fresh water resources meant for not only economic benefits but for the betterment of social life as well as ecological conservation. As per an estimate about two third of the world population shall be living in water stressed countries by the year 2025 and the demand for water shall increase by 55 % by the year 2050 (UNW-DPAC, 2015). Therefore, it is very important to go for sustainable development of water resources which is one of the most important challenges of the present day world.

 

2.1 Water Resources and Sustainable Development

 

Sustainable development is the key to all the issues related to water resources. Sustainable means continuing without lessening (Flint et al. 2002). Development means improving to a more advanced state. Throughout the history, this mother earth has sustained all forms of life by providing food, water, air and shelter. Thus sustainable development can mean working to improve humans’ productive power without damaging or undermining society or the environment. According to Flint (2003), the conceptual model of sustainable development illustrates the relationship among economic, ecological and social issues of concern. Thus the development of water resources should be based on economic vitality, ecological integrity and social equity and hence the three dimensions of sustainable development.

 

2.1.1 Economic vitality: Economic development and water are intimately connected in many ways. Water in usable form is an essential input for the production of food, electricity and many other marketable products. Therefore, to have the fullest potential of economic growth, there should be sufficient investment in the development of infrastructure for water resources. Wise investment in water infrastructure and sound water management are essential components to facilitate the structural changes that are necessary in most of the countries (WWDR, 2015).

 

2.1.2 Ecological integrity: Aquatic ecosystems are at the centre of all life forms of development. Healthy ecosystems are required for a continuous supply of water and many other important services for humans. As per a report by Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005b), ecosystems provide services that are of the following four categories:

  • Provisioning (e.g. clean water).
  • Regulating (e.g. flow regulation and flood control).
  • Cultural (e.g. recreation).
  • Supporting (e.g. habitat for aquatic system).

 

Unfortunately ecosystem services remain under-valued, under-recognized and under-utilized. Therefore, ecosystems all over the world, particularly wetlands are in decline in terms of services they provide. The WWF living Planet Index 2012 shows a 30 percent decline in biodiversity health since 1970 (WWF, 2012). Poor waste water management has lead to the degradation of ecosystem through pollution and contamination resulting in social and economic costs. Maintaining the ecological integrity of every ecosystem should be integral to the development of water resources.

 

2.1.3 Social equity: Around the world, 748 million people lack access to an improved drinking water source, while billions lack drinking water that is really safe. As per a report of WHO and UNICEF (2014a) in the year 2012, approximately 2.5 billion people did not have access to the improved sanitation facility. A failure in access to clean water is directly linked to poverty. Reducing poverty through water management is a useful pro-poor framework for action. This will provide livelihood opportunities to every section of society. Countries like Brazil, India and China are making good strides to reduce poverty. Yet an access to safe drinking water in these countries still remains elusive for many people. Water infrastructure development can generate significant national as well as regional economic benefits. This can also lessen vulnerability related to food and energy security. Thus while planning to develop water resources for economic purposes, social equity and ecological integrity must be taken into consideration for better results.

 

2.2 Water Resources, Sustainable Development and Regional Issues

 

Challenges at the interface of water and sustainable development vary considerably from one region to another. There are different challenges, inter-linkages and opportunities in different parts of the world some of which are given here in brief:

 

2.2.1 Europe and North America: Many countries in Europe have high levels of economic development and per capita resource used. Thus, there is increased pressure on natural resources particularly water. In the eastern part of pan- European regions, some nations are still poor. There is friction between water use sectors in many basins in these regions (UNECE, 2011). Diffuse agricultural pollution poses significant pressure on about 38 percent of the European Union water bodies. The potential impacts of climate change are other issues for the sustainable development of the region.

 

In the United States, despite of improvement of water use efficiency in irrigation sector in the recent past, almost half the cropland is still irrigated through traditional methods. According to Schaible and Marcel (2012), majority of the farmers still don’t evaluate the crop irrigation requirement to have better water management practices. Well- functioning coordination at different levels, from national to river basin and sub-basin and joint planning involving different interests are important for sustainable management of water resources (WWDR, 2015).

 

2.2.2 Asia and the Pacific: This region is one of the most disaster prone regions in the world. In the year 2013, over 17,000 people died from water related disasters in Asia and Pacific with a economic loss more than US $ 51.5 billion (CRED, 2014). Climate change is expected to further worsen the situation resulting from above normal monsoon or extremely low rainfall (IPCC, 2014). Use of ground water for agriculture and other purposes is another issue. Bangladesh, China, India, Nepal and Pakistan together account for nearly half of the total groundwater used over the globe (IGRAC, 2010). Depleting aquifers is a serious issue in this region. If used properly, the region’s groundwater can serves as a buffer in times of surface water scarcity and can contribute to all sustainable development activities.

 

2.2.3 The Arab Region: Issues related to usable water in the Arab region are on the forefront when we come across challenges to overall development. Almost 75 % of people in Arab countries live in water scarcity conditions. Climate change is further aggravating the situation. Although many countries in this region are rich in hydrocarbon reserves, yet desalination cannot be a sustainable option unless other sources of energy are considered. Water harvesting and reuse are expanding throughout the region. Irrigation with treated waste water is expanding in Jordan. This water is also injected into coastal aquifer to ward off saltwater intrusion and bolster water reserves in Oman (Zekri et al. 2014). Egypt is using water from flash flood to recharge groundwater along the Red Sea. Such efforts seem to be healthy practices to develop natural resources.

 

2.2.4 Latin America and the Caribbean: This region is hydrologically and economically very heterogeneous. The focus has remained on poverty reduction and economic development in the recent years. Large quantity of water is used in the production of goods for export that is generating problems for water management. As per a report by IPCC (2008) climate change and higher water demand in future may cause ill effects on the economic development. Many cities suffer from episodic flooding because of inadequate storm water drainage infrastructure in urban planning (WWAP, 2012). A closer integration of economic and water resources development is required to ensure environmental sustainability in future.

 

2.2.5 Africa: Agriculture is the backbone of economy in many African nations. Expanding populations and growing economies require a wise management of natural resources in Africa. Wouters (2011) reported that there is a critical nexus between water, food and energy security that is the most important issue in the Africa. Climate variability is likely to restrain progress in managing water resources of Africa. International cooperation is needed to manage the water resources coherently and equitably to meet regional and national goals evolving social sectors.

 

2.3 Development of Water Resources in India

 

It is an established fact that the availability of fresh water is the pre-condition for any kind of development. Also it is a finite resource and the well being of humans is possible if the resources of water are developed in a sustainable way. Issues related to water resources are variable all over the globe. Yet most of them can be managed through development plans for surface and ground water resources on this planet. Sustainable fresh water resources management means balancing the fresh water supplies with demands that ensures water availability (quantity and quality) in the future (UNW-DPAC, 2015). With the changing global climate it becomes even more important to opt for a mix of indigenous technical knowledge and newer technologies for developing fresh water resources.

 

With second most populated nation of the world and growing economy, India needs to develop and manage its natural resources in the most appropriate way. The development of water resources have to be on the sustainable basis so as to carry on the improved lifestyle in domestic, agricultural and industrial sectors. This includes that freshwater resources are properly managed and developed in such a way that they are able to cater to the demands of ever increasing population. Some of the option for the development of water resources is given ahead.

 

2.3.1 Development of River Valley Projects: From time immemorial, humans have tried to settle in the fertile plains of major rivers all over the world (Biswas, 2012). People have utilized water of various rivers for domestic agricultural and industrial purposes since long. Different civilizations attempted to have a control over the river water to reduce the effects of droughts and floods. Construction of dams is, therefore, not a new phenomenon.

 

Regulation of river flows for hydropower and irrigation through damming picked up in the second half of the twentieth century. By the year 2000, there were about 45000 large dams worldwide (Khagram, 2004). In India as per the record of National Register of Large Dams (CWC, 2017) there were 5254 large dams that have been completed and 447 were under construction. These dams have for certain improved the economic condition of the rural as well urban people all over India. Such projects have solved the problem of water availability for different sectors along with energy production to some extent.

 

Some social and environmental issues related to the construction of dams are now considered as a major challenge. Rehabilitation of dam oustees and degradation of ecosystems are of major concern in the present context. Delay in the commissioning of these projects due to various reasons not only hampers the benefits but also raises the cost several fold for the same. Proper Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) and its implementation can certainly help in the settlement of different issues. Involvement of stakeholders is the most important aspect in the decision making process as regard to the development of river valley projects. In the changing conditions of global climate, these issues need to be looked into seriously.

 

2.3.2 Development of Groundwater Resources: The water that seeps through rocks & soil and is stored below the ground is termed as groundwater. The rocks in which water is stored are called aquifers. As per a report of Central Water Commission (CWC, 2015), the water resource potential of India in terms of the natural runoff in rivers was about 1869 Billion Cubic Meter (BCM) per year. But the usable water in India was estimated to be 1123 BCM per year. The share of surface water and ground water was 690 and 433 BCM per year, respectively. Setting aside natural discharges, only 398 BCM of the groundwater was available for the entire country.

 

Due to increasing population and over exploitation the ground water availability is fast declining. Groundwater constitutes the largest share of irrigation facility in India. About 89 % of the groundwater extracted is used in irrigation sector (MOWR, 2014). Experts believe that India is fast moving towards a crisis of groundwater overuse and contamination (Kulkarni et al. 2015). Pricing of crops that consume high quantity of water along with free power supply by some of the states are found to be responsible for declining underground water resources. Moreover, charging very low for domestic and industrial supply of groundwater is further aggravating the situation. Indiscriminate use of chemicals in agricultural and industrial activities is polluting even the underground aquifers.

 

Change in global mean temperature due to green house effect shall bring about changes in evaporation – precipitation pattern over the globe. Groundwater resources shall be affected slowly than surface water resources. But the rate of recharge of the groundwater resources and their long term availability may be affected (Kundewicz, et al. 2007). Moreover, there are uncertainties about how the recharge shall be affected. Proper development and utilization of water from underground aquifers shall have to be enforced for ensuring the supply of this resource. Crop diversification, shifting to modern irrigation methods and pollution prevention can really save our water resources. Strict enactment of law and involving local masses can help in the better management of these resources.

 

2.3.3 Watershed Development: Watershed is an area from which the runoff flows to a common point on the drainage system. Every river, tributary or stream has a watershed and many small watersheds join together to form larger watershed. Water is a critical natural resource in the rain-fed areas. Proper development of watershed can help in bringing change in the life of people in these areas (see case study). Watershed development programme is, therefore, considered as an effective tool for addressing issues like agricultural growth and development in such fragile areas (Joshi et al. 2005). About 60 % of the total arable land in India is rain-fed and has low productivity, low employment, poverty and a bulk of fragile and marginal land (Joshi et al. 2008). Also rainfall pattern in these areas is also highly variable that leads to moisture stressed conditions leading to poor crop output. Therefore, a need to develop these watersheds was felt. Government of India started to implement the watershed development programme in 1970s but it took pace in 1990s only.

 

According to Wani et al. (2008), watershed is not simply a hydrological unit but also socio-political-ecological entity which plays crucial role in determining food, social and economic security that provides life services to local people. Participation of different stakeholder is very important for the proper development and utilization of watershed management projects. Watershed development projects have been taken up in the Shivalik area of north-west India (photograph 1). These projects have changed the life style of a large population along with conserving the local ecosystem. Therefore, further more areas must be identified for such social, economic and environment friendly activities.

2.3.4 Rainwater Harvesting: Rainwater harvesting offers ample opportunity for the policymakers to use the available water resources in the best possible ways. In a country like India, because of highly variable spatial and temporal rainfall pattern, it is of immense importance to use water from rainfall for a variety of demands. The studies have shown that if a half of the rainfall is captured, every village in India can meet its own domestic water needs (Agarwal, 2001).

 

Rainwater harvesting in a fluctuating environment enhances the resilience of human society and is clearly an adaptation to climate change. In India, Singh and Kandari (2012) studied the case of rainwater harvesting in Shimla city and found that it can be an ideal solution for water problems of the city in the wake of climate change. Lo and Koralegedara (2015) analyzed the effect of climate change on urban rainwater harvesting in Colombo city of Srilanka and concluded that the harvesting of rainwater was a viable option if it was incorporated with a possible future climate change impact designs. Rainwater can also be used to recharge groundwater as well. Now, it is mandatory to have rooftop harvesting in new constructions of housing boards in some of the states of India.

 

2.3.5 Interlinking of Rivers: Floods and drought have been two important scenarios that many nations including India have to confront with. Growing population and climate change have been creating a situation where development and management of water resources is a challenge. To address these issues, National River Linking Project (NRLP) of India envisages the transfer of water from potentially water surplus rivers to water scarce western and peninsular river basins. The interlinking of rivers would consist of 30 river links and 3000 storage structures to transfer 174 BCM of water through a canal network of about 14900 km (NWDA, 2006). The interlinking project when completed, will increase India’s utilizable water resource by 25 % and reduce the inequality of water resources. An additional irrigation to about 35 million hectares shall be possible with the mitigation of floods. Also about 35 GW more of hydropower shall be generated by this project.

 

The mega project of interlinking of rivers is very complex. Construction of dams across different rivers and the climate change are important issues that may change the flow pattern in the rivers. The project may alter the hydrology of the area and shall disturb the natural habitat of many endangered species. Shiva (2003), has considered interlinking of rivers to be a serious offence and an act of violence against nature. Huge funds are required for launching this scheme. It is also a socio-ecological issue and needs to be addressed through impact assessment programme. Therefore, before making it practical, the wisdom lies in careful analysis of all the related issues.

 

2.3.6 Rehabilitation of Ponds and Tanks: Village ponds and tanks have always played an important role in the life of rural people around the world (Kumar, et al. 2013; Sukchan, et al. 2014). The excess water during rainy season is stored in these ponds and can be used for irrigation of the fields along with their use by cattle. Also these ponds help in the recharge of groundwater resources. In landscapes with considerable slope, small farm ponds can play role in sediment dynamics (Berg, et al. 2015).

 

In the recent past, these ponds have been neglected and are facing a number of problems like encroachment, siltation and water contamination. The storing capacity of these ponds have declined drastically and a lot of water goes waste which otherwise could be stored in these sites. Development and rehabilitation of the village ponds can certainly improve the socio-economic condition of the rural masses along with the conservation of these small ecosystems. A study by Bastakoti et al. (2016) in Nepal showed that pond rehabilitation is a viable approach to deal with climate variability. This project also helped in the improvement in the economy of rural people and brought awareness in the masses about the importance of developing and managing such systems. Deepening of ponds and removal of encroachments have already started in many villages in India.

 

2.3.7 Construction of Underground Dams: The scarcity of water is a major constraint in the development of social and economic status of masses in the arid and semiarid areas. Over one billion people from the developing world are dependent on dry land natural resources for their livelihood (UNDP, 2014). It is therefore very important to adopt appropriate technologies to improve the ability of the dry land communities and ecosystems in the changing climatic scenario (Tucker, et al. 2015). The run-off floods can be retarded to increase groundwater replenishment by creating an obstruction across the stream bed. This experience of farmers has been used nowadays for the construction of underground dams.

 

An underground dam is a facility that stores ground water in the pores of the strata for its sustainable use. The water stored during the rainy season can be used during the dry seasons and from the years with high rainfall to the dry years. Hanson and Nilsson (1986) divided the underground dams into two types i.e. subsurface dams that are constructed below ground level and will arrest the flow of natural aquifer and sand storage dams are a little higher concrete structures that impound water in the sediments accumulated by the dam itself.

 

Many workers have concluded from their study that subsurface dams raised the level of underground water during the pre and post monsoon season after they were constructed (Janardhana Raju et al. 2006; Fakharinia et al. 2012). Similarly sand dams also have been found to support the hypothesis that these structures are very effective in increasing the adaptive capacity of dry lands through times of water scarcity (Ryan and Elsner, 2016). Jadhav et al. (2012) in their study on dry land areas of India concluded that said dams create a permanent increase in water table and allow the trees and vegetation to grow and improve the ecology of the areas. These dams are now built in different countries including India, Brazil and Japan to increase the ground water availability. Some subsurface dams have also been constructed in the Shivalik belt of Haryana (photograph 2).

 

Summary

 

Availability of fresh water is key to achieve poverty reduction, inclusive growth, public health, food security and long lasting harmony with earth’s essential ecosystems. Over exploitation and contamination of water resources in the recent past have created certain issues that challenge the overall survival of communities in the near future. It has now been realized that both surface and ground water resources are to be developed and managed by involving different stakeholders for their judicious use. This is perhaps, the most essential requirement to secure the survival of different species and ecosystems. Development river valley projects, watershed management projects and underground dams have been undertaken to provide fresh water to various societies for different purposes. Harvesting of rainwater to recharge aquifers and to use the ground water resources in planned manner is picking up slowly. Interlinking of river is another mega project that can help in balancing the problem of excess water to water scarce conditions. Rehabilitation of ponds and reservoirs is an important developmental step at the local level. This activity can ensure the availability of water for various purposes especially in arid lands.

 

Water resources development projects entail a number of social and environmental issues. Rehabilitation of people displaced by construction of dams, interstate and international water sharing issues and ecological alterations are some of the challenges that need to be addressed. Many a projects require huge funds for their construction and relocation of human societies. Proper EIA of the projects and its implementation is of immense importance in the success of such schemes. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is capable of promoting and coordinating the development and management of natural resources in order to maximize the economic and social welfare. Enhancing community participation through education can help in achieving the sustainability of water resources. Therefore, it is an essential requirement to have proper planning and development of water resources to achieve the desired goals for the wellbeing of societies and ecosystems.

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