19 Water Resources – Planning and Development-I

Amarjit Singh

epgp books

 

Objectives:

 

1.      To explain water resources on this planet

2.      To understand water availability in India

3.      To learn planning of water resources

4.      To know different approaches of water resources planning

 

Introduction

 

Water is perhaps the most valuable resource nature has given to living organisms. It is so important that we cannot imagine life without it. The evolution of life itself took place in aquatic system. Rather, it has played an important role in the evolution of different kinds of life forms. In the living beings there is 65‒99 % of water in the body. The oxygen that we need for respiration also comes from water. It is essential for sustaining life on this planet. Water is required for food production, economic growth and general well being. Water is so useful to us that we cannot have any substitute for it. It is truly a unique gift to mankind. More serious issue is that its quality and quantity is deteriorating day by day due to water pollution by different activities. It is a matter of great concern for all of us. The demand of water in its purest form is also increasing and therefore, conservation of water resources is an essential requirement.

 

Almost 71% of the earth’s surface is covered with water. As per an estimate the total volume of water on this planet is approximately 1.4 billion km3. It means there should be no shortage of water for any organism. But 97.5% of this water is found in oceans and seas and is saline, while the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. Of the freshwater, 68.9% is found in glaciers and permanent snow cover, 30.8% is situated in the earth as ground water, swamps, soil moisture and permafrost. Just 0.3% of the fresh water is available in lakes, rivers and streams. The total usable freshwater for ecosystems and humans is approximately 2,00,000 km3 which is about <1% of all freshwater resources and only 0.01% of all the water on earth (Gleick, 1993; Shiklomanov, 1999). Much of this available water is located far from human settlements.

 

Water availability in India

 

India is a large country and sustains about 17% of the world population, which makes it the second most populated nation in the world. As per an estimate by Ministry of Water Resources, India has 2.5 percent (328.7 mha) of global land mass and 4 percent of world fresh water resources. About 50% of the annual precipitation takes place in just about 15 days (Kumar and Bharat 2014). There are huge spatial and temporal variations in the rainfall pattern. India’s freshwater resources comprise the single most important natural endowment and has very important role in its economy and human settlements. The freshwater resources of India are mainly comprised of river systems, groundwater and wetlands.

 

Rainfall in India

 

The long term average rainfall for the country is about 1160 mm, which is the highest in the world for a country of comparable size (Lal, 2001). The rainfall variation is so huge that Mousinram near Cherrapunji in Meghalaya in the North-East receives about 11,690 mm rainfall while Jaisalmer in Rajasthan has only 150 mm of rainfall. About 75% of the rainfall is received in rainy season (June to September). As per an estimate around 21% of the area in the country receives less than 750 mm of rains annually while 15% has rainfall in excess of 1500 mm. Peninsular India receives rainfall less than 600 mm while western part of Rajasthan and Gujarat experience a rainfall less than 500 mm annually.

 

Surface water resources

 

Surface water resources are comprised of rivers and inland resources like lakes, ponds, canals etc. A large section of society is dependent on them as they provide livelihood and other ecosystem services. Of many rivers in India, 12 are classified as major rivers having total catchment area of about 252 mha. The Ganga – Brahmputra – Meghna system is having the largest catchment area of 110 mha (CWC, 2010). Other major rivers are- Indus, Godavari, Krishna and Mahanadi with a total catchment area of about 103 mha. The catchment area of medium rivers is about 25 mha.

Ground Water in India

 

India is one of the largest ground water consumer of the world with an estimated usage of 230 km3 per year (World Bank, 2010a). About 60% of the water demand in agriculture and 80% in domestic usage is met through groundwater. The National Sample Surveys (NSS) using remote sensing data suggest that as much as 75 to 80 percent of the country’s irrigated area is served by groundwater wells (Shah, 2009). This exploitation is highly unsustainable and has put this vital resource at great peril. As per the survey carried out by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), the total replenishable groundwater resources in India was 433 billion cubic meter (BCM) in 2004. The ground water available for irrigation was 369.6 BCM, while for industrial, domestic and other purposes, it was 71 BCM (CWC, 2009). These figures may not show the exact situation as there are wide variations in the distribution of these resources across the country.

 

Average annual per capita availability of water in India was 1816 m3 in the year 2001 (Table 1). A per capita water availability of less than 1700 cubic meter is termed as water stressed conditions while below 1000 m3 per year is called as water scarcity condition. It dropped to 1545 m3 per year in 2011. Further it is expected to be 1140 m3 per year by 2050.

 

Planning of Water Resources

 

Need for Water Resources Planning

 

Multiple planning of use of water resources for ever-increasing world population is imperative as there is enhanced requirement of freshwater resources. Some of the issues compel us to plan for the proper use of water resources. These issues are:

 

(i)            Too little water

(ii)          Too much water

(iii)        Water pollution

(iv)        Degradation of aquatic and riparian ecosystems

(v)          Other issues

 

(i) Too little Water: As per the distribution of water over the globe, several parts on earth have very little water available to them. Arabian and some African countries have acute shortage of water. In many countries like India, rainfall takes place only for a few days in a year. So, many parts of the world remain dry for most part of the year. With the change in global average temperature, the rate of evaporation shall also rise and there shall be an enhanced demand for fresh water.

 

(ii) Too much water: Many coastal areas and tropical countries receive more than average annual rainfall. Many parts remain flooded due to excess rainfall. The flood plains are vulnerable to floods because of developmental activities in them. Many water ways pass through more than one state or countries and the flood control measures may fail due to different conflicts. Climate change in the 21st century shall have far reaching effects on precipitation pattern all over the globe. Different climate models suggest that annual precipitation will increase due to change in global climate (IPCC 2007c and 2001), although the changes shall vary from region to region. Therefore, planning to control floods and prevent the damage caused by them is of utmost importance.

 

(iii) Water pollution: Discharges of waste water from industries and domestic activities have considerable detrimental effect on water quality that ultimately harms human and ecosystem health. Point and non- point sources release a huge amount of toxic substances into different water bodies. Even today, we know very little about the environmental and health impacts of all these wastewater constituents. Planning for wastewater and its proper utilization shall help in preventing the loss of good quality water.

 

(iv) Degradation of aquatic and riparian ecosystems: Discharges of industrial wastes, pesticides and fertilizers and infestation of aquatic nuisance species result in the degradation of aquatic and riparian ecosystems. Due to increase in CO2 level in the atmosphere, there may be ocean acidification along with warmer water and more saline estuaries. These changes may lead to the breakdown of oceanic food webs and may cause damage to the fragile coral reefs (Denman et al. 2007). These areas are very important from the urban and industrial development point of view. Proper planning can help in preventing the degradation of such ecosystems.

 

(v) Other issues: Amongst other issues concerned with the need for water resources planning including like navigation, river bank erosion and reservoir related issues. Narrowing of different rivers for shipping purpose may increase the flood water levels. There can be a serious bank erosion problem where people are living close to morphologically active (eroding) rivers. Ecological, economic and environmental impacts of dams and reservoir have already been debated many times by policymakers and environmentalists.

 

Scales for planning of water resources: Spatial and temporal scales are commonly used for planning and management of water resources.

 

(i) Spatial scale: Some of the areas require special planning to have optimum use of available water resources. Watersheds and river basins are usually considered logical regions for the planning and management of water resources. This makes sense to know that if the decision for water resource planning and management are contained within the watershed or basin. Activities of land and water management in one part of river basin can affect the land and water in other parts of basin. Planning and management of water resources is often undertaken on basin scale so as to maximize the economic and social benefits to be obtained from the entire basin.

 

(ii)  Temporal scale: Planning of water resources requires looking into the future. Short term planning of water resources includes efficient use of the resources while long term planning involves conservation for longer period. Both short and long term planning must take into consideration the long term future impacts. Planning of water resources has to be continuing and sequential process. The plans need to be periodically updated and adapted to new information, objectives and updated forecasts of future supplies, demands, costs and benefits.

 

Approaches for planning and management of water resources

 

There are two general approaches for the planning and management of water resources. One is from top-down often called as command and control while the other is known as bottom-up or grass – root approach. Both these approaches can lead to an integrated plan and management policy.

 

Top- down planning and management: Professionals for water resources management have been preparing the plans for many river basins with a top-down approach. This has happened in the much of the past half century. This approach has little active participation of the stakeholders at ground level. In today’s environment there is an increasing demand for active involvement in decision making process for planning and management activities. Therefore, top-down approaches are becoming less desirable.

 

Bottom-up planning and management: In the recent times, there has been increased involvement and participation of interested stakeholders for water resources planning and management. Plans are being made from bottom-up instead of top-down. The concerned parties, government organizations and professionals are increasingly working together for the creation of adaptive comprehensive water management programmes, policies and plans. This approach involves the concerned stakeholders in the decision making process. The participating stakeholders will have a sense of ownership and such planning will improve the chances that the system being managed is successful and sustainable.

 

Integrated Water Resources Management: This concept has been developing since the beginning of 1980s. The Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) has been created due to growing pressure on water resources because of expanding human population and socio-economic development. In fact, IWRM is a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP, 2000).

 

Planning of water resources in India

 

Various studies have indicated that there is a gradual decline in per capita available water on this planet especially in the developing world. The unplanned use of different water resources have further lead to deterioration of the situation. Therefore, it is very important to have short as well as long term planning for making these water resources accessible to everyone. Central Water Commission (CWC, 2014) has issued guidelines for improving water use efficiency in different sectors in India.

 

The National Commission for Integrated Water Resource Development (NCIWRD) estimated that for 2010, the total quantity of water use was 710 BCM (billion cubic meters) in India. Out of this 78% was used for irrigation only. Domestic use accounted for 6%, industry 5%, power development 3% and other activities claimed about 8%. Another estimate indicates the requirement of 1180 BCM by 2050, with irrigation having a share of 68% and domestic use at 9.5%. To meet the ever increasing demand of water supply for the society, various aspects need be looked into. Before planning to save water for future, it is very important to see the existing efficiency for various facilities for water utilization. Water use efficiencies in different sectors in India is given in table 2. As agriculture sector consumes most of the fresh water, the efficiency of its use is shown to increase with the modern methods of irrigation (drip, sprinkler and furrow irrigation). But much more attention is required in the traditional methods and in case of urban water supplies.

 

Scope of Improvement in Efficiency: With proper management of water resources, the efficiency can improve as shown in Table 3. Both in irrigation and urban water supplies there is a good scope for the improved efficiency of water use:

 

Measures for improving the water use efficiency: The National Water Policy of India (NWP, 2012) has laid stress on conservation of water. The best way is to ensure the highest standards of efficiency in water utilization in all the three sectors- Irrigation, Domestic, and Industrial.

 

Irrigation Sector: About 80% of the total freshwater is consumed in irrigation in India. By 2050 the share of this sector may be approximately 70% of the total consumption. This reduction might be due to competing demands from other sectors. It is needless to mention that the present irrigation methods are highly inefficient. So the time has come when water audit has to be carried out in all the irrigation projects on annual basis. The elements of water audit include:

  • Record of amount of water marked
  • Record of amount of water delivered
  • Record of amount of water loss
  • Measures to reduce water loss

 

Scientific water management practices in agriculture: some of the practices that can help in better management of water resources may include:

  1. Scientific estimation of crop water demands
  2. Proper Scheduling of irrigation
  3. Control of wastage during irrigation
  4. Provision for draining out excess water and using it whenever required
  5. Plugging of leakages, preventing losses and unauthorized uses.
  6. Minimizing loses from fields by using mulching
  7. Adopting modern methods of irrigation like furrow irrigation, drip irrigation, sprinkler systems etc.
  8. Assessment of command area size and fixing of outlet size to match crop water requirement
  9. Lining of water courses, irrigation through pipes etc.
  10. Tuning of irrigation schedule to weather forecast.

Research and development Efforts in Irrigation. Central water commission (CWC, 2014) has suggested measures for some use of water in irrigation. Some of them are:

  1. Developing database on agricultural water utilization.
  2. Improving agricultural practices for conserving water.
  3. Preventing water pollution and reuse of irrigation water.
  4. Rationalizing water pricing.
  5. Cropping for flood affected / prone area.
  6. Technology for developing salt tolerant, low water requiring crops.
  7. Desalinization of water at low cost.
  8. Conjunctive use of surface and ground water.
  9. Improved water management.
  10. Participatory irrigation management.
  11. Emphasis on more crop per drop.

 

Efficient use of water in Domestic Sector: As per an estimate, the requirement of water for domestic sector in India is likely to increase from 56 BCM in 2010 to 102 BCM in 2050 (CWC, 2000). Therefore, it is equally important to use potable water in the most efficient manner. Following steps are suggested for achieving higher efficiency:-

  1. Water Audit: A detailed water auditing is required in domestic sector. This will help in determining the amount of water loss due to various reasons. Bulk metering will facilitate in identifying the areas where the losses are taking place. Based on these findings, options should be developed to prevent water losses.
  2. Leakage Control: Leakages in water distribution system and home outlets are the major reasons for insufficient use of water. Detection and repair of these points will improve the system to a greater extent.
  3. Tariff: Costs of potable water is highly subsidized in many countries including India. Rationalizing rate policies can be an effective tool to control wastage of water and save this precious resource for proper use.
  4. Water Conservation: Promotion of conservation ethics in the society can help in enhancing the freshwater supplies. Rainwater harvesting is an important tool for the same Treated water or effluents may be used in horticulture and gardening. Water efficient systems for flushing should be mandatory.
  5. Preventing over- exploitation: Exploitation of ground water should not exceed the recharging possibilities in all areas and especially near the coast line so as to prevent contamination of freshwater by sea water.
  6. Pressure reduction: Reduced flow rate in the homes might be one way to decrease water consumption in homes.
  7. Pricing a tool for demand management: There is an urgent need for the revision of tariffs for water supplies. Illegal connections shall have to be identified and regularized.
  8. Water reuse: Treated water can be used again whenever possible.
  9. Public awareness: involvement of local masses is important approach in conservation of water. Educating people about the availability of water and future requirements must be highlighted so as to create awareness amongst the people to conserve this precious resource. Participation of women is very important in this drive.

 

Central Water Commission (CWC, 2014) has suggested possible savings of water in domestic sector of India. Mass awareness campaign should be started by using available media. The people should be aware of the costs involved in bringing the water to their use. Public awareness needs to be created for reducing the water consumption along with recycling and reusing the waste water. The participation of women is particularly important and they should be encouraged to the maximum as they are the main users of the water at home. An environment has to be created for motivating people and the local governments to come forward and take up the operation, maintenance and management of the system (CWC, 2014). A large amount of water can be saved by adopting the suggested methods of water use as given in table 4.

 

Efficient use of water in Industrial Sector: At present, the industrial water demand including energy demand is about 8% of the total water demand in India. This share is expected to rise to about 13% by the year 2050. Textile, paper and pulp, and iron and steel industry consume a lot of water. Thermal power projects also require huge quantity of water for the cooling process. Industrial plants in India consume 2 to 3.5 times more water per unit of production as compared to similar plants operating in other countries. Moreover, the industrial sector requires water supply on regular basis throughout the year. Therefore, there is an urgent need for efficient use of water in industries for the sustained output.

 

Measures for improving water efficiency in industries: Some of the measures that can help in the improvement of water use efficiency can be as:

  1. Water audit: Water audit by all industrial units should a regular activity. This will help in identifying the areas where the wastage of water is taking place and where water can be reused.
  2. Involvement of local agencies: The local agencies may be involved for financial incentives for water use efficiency.
  3. Installation of sub meters: Sub meters will help in monitoring the success of efforts for water use efficiency and detect leakages.
  4. Contests: Contests for employees to conserve water may be conducted.
  5. Provision for easy reporting: There should be a provision for easy way for reporting of leaks by the employees.
  6. Reuse and Recycling: Reuse and Recycling of water should be mandatory to reduce the demand for freshwater.
  7. Tariff fixation: Tariff should be fixed in such a way that the industries are motivated to conserve water.

Summary

 

With the expected change in the global climate due to green house effect, the available water resources are likely to be affected to a greater extent. Ever increasing human population, economic factors and land use changes coupled with urbanization are likely to have higher stress on water resources. Receding glaciers and reduction in snow cover reported in the recent past indicate decline in water supply, hydropower and change in river flows throughout the 21st century (Rajneesh, 2014). Irrigation pattern in the intensive agriculture system is further aggravating the issue. Modern irrigation methods like sprinkler and drip irrigation have to be promoted. Agronomic practices have to be replaced according to the changing environmental conditions. Industrial sector has to be updated as per the latest technologies based on reduced utilization of water. A proper management plan for using the available water resources is required in place. It is, therefore, very important to have local as well as regional planning for the optimal use of water resources. An understanding of possible impacts of climate change is central to the planning and use of water resources to ensure fresh water supply to all in the present century.

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