25 Media and Popular Culture

Dr. Rayson K. Alex

In this chapter titled “Media and Popular Culture” an attempt will be made to define the key terms, “Media” and “Popular culture.” The definitions discussed will lead to the understanding of how these two phenomena contribute to and influence each other in India’s diversified cultural context.

Introduction

1. Definitions

Defining Media and Media Studies

In Media Studies – An Introduction, Robert Kolker traces the root of the word, “media” to words, like “mediate,” “intermediate,” “mediation,” all of which derive from the Latin word for “middle.” A medium is a container, transmitter and a conduit that always changes whatever passes through it and is always itself defined differently by those on either end of the transmission process. Kolker affirms that “media” is not merely a medium (as meant by the words, “container, a transmitter, a conduit”) but is capable of changing or transforming the object/information/content that is being transmitted through the medium. It is this quality of the medium (that could cause change) that is interesting because it has deeper (implicit and explicit) meanings in cultural studies. Let us look at a definition of “media studies.”

Mark Balnaves in Media Theories and Approaches defines media studies as a discipline that involves tracing the media through the ways in which they participate in contemporary social and cultural life. It deals with various components of that process, including structures and organization of media, content, audience a nd effects.

Balnaves clearly brings out two very important aspects of media studies. They are: 1. A study within the framework of the reach of the specific media intended – “organization of media, content, audience and effects.” This approach is media-oriented and is directed to the study of the immediate effect/influence/content of media. 2. A study outside the immediate framework of the specific media – “participate in contemporary social and cultural life.” This approach is more culture-oriented and looks at the long-lasting impacts/effects/influences of media.

Some of you might remember the television serial Ramayan by Ramanand Sagar. The serial was broadcast on Doordarshan from 1987. It was a very popular serial based on the Indian epic, Ramayana; an average of 60 million people watched each episode in different parts o f the country. Certain episodes attracted 80 to 100 million viewers. It was reported that people rented televisions to watch the serial as a community. There were even reports on how people performed rituals in front of the television. Studies were carried out on the symbolization of Ram as a divine nationalist hero. Studies on Ramayan as political, religious, communal and democratic tools were carried out by aspiring scholars. Some writers studied Ramayan as a discussion on caste and caste politics while some others wrote about economics of transmission and privatization; audiovisual narrative as folk story-telling; new experience of television mythology and so on studying the case of Ramayan. These studies revolving around the serial, Ramayan, challenged the strict boundaries of media studies to a broader and multi-disciplinary approach.

Important points to re member

Medium is capable of changing the content
Media leaves deep impressions in contemporary culture and social life
Media studies is multi-disciplinary in its approach

Defining Popular Culture

We have been referring to mass/popular culture during the discussion on “media” but did not define the term. Since we understand media in the light of culture, we need to necessarily define it in terms of popular culture. Here are some definitions:

…the beliefs, practices and objects that are organized and widely shared among a population. (Ulla 134)

Popular culture includes both ‘folk’ or ‘popular beliefs,’ practices and objects rooted in local traditions as well as ‘mass’ beliefs, practices and objects generated from political and commercial centres. (Mukerji 53)

It is the site of struggle between the resistance of subordinate groups in society and the forces of incorporation operating in the interests of dominant groups in the society. (Trechmann 83)

While Ulla’s definition stresses on the scale (“wideness”) of the reach of “beliefs, practices and objects” Mukerji’s focuses on its depth (“rooted in local traditions”) and its political and commercial implications. Mukerji also addresses the commercial aspect aimed at the people (“taste of the general masses”). As pointed out by Trechmann, popular culture is predominantly influenced by the new values, ideas, thoughts, perspectives and attitudes of the “dominant groups in the society.” Trechmann’s strong position is that in the process of popularizing a product, the dominant groups subordinate the mass people, thereby controlling the mass culture.

In simple words, in a given time if one analyses the role of media in a society, it can be generally observed that it imposes some values, ideas, thoughts, perspectives and attitudes on people. To give an example, the health issues highlighted by media to promote toothpaste are a conscious effort by the corporate companies. The fact is that people are forced to believe that they should necessarily use toothpaste to keep their teeth healthy. The traditional ways of cleaning teeth like using mango leaves and Neem twig are replaced by toothpaste. This is an example of subordination of the mass people and their culture. A popular example in cinema is the recent “lungi” dance. The dance which almost made the film a success, caricatured a cultural traditio n of some communities. In this instance the subordinate culture is being used for a commercial and dominant purpose.

Important points to re member

Popular culture is influenced in wideness and deepness
Popular culture is influenced by new values, ideas, thoughts, perspectives and attitudes of the dominant groups in the society.

Forms of Popular Media

How many hours in a day do we spend our time in front of a television or the internet? A considerable amount of time is being spent daily watching, hearing or browsing media. Why do we do that? In the name of entertainment, information or education, how much of one’s time is being used for advertisements? This explains the powerful and dominant presence of media in our lives. It will be clear if we look at the way children are being brought up. The likings of the children are similar. What children should wear, what they should play with, what their attitude should be, their accent, their colour choices, their amb itions and even their choice of friends are influenced by media. Whether the time spent on media is limited or unlimited, it is a given that media influences us in more than one way. If so, how much is one influenced by the media?

One’s media consumption is directly connected with the time that is devoted towards media. By rewinding and making note of all that one listened to, watched and read in a day, one might be able to make an inventory of one’s media consumption. It will be useful to do this exercise to understand our consumption of media.

Step 1: List the number of hours you spend each day watching television. As a sub list you may also note the time that you spend on other media like watching DVDs and browsing on mobile phone.

Step 2: Make a list of advertisements, films, news and other programmes that you watch. You may also recollect the visuals that you have in your mind.

Step 3: Identify advertisements that you have watched many times or even daily.

Step 4: Make a list of the things that you use in your life that you have watched in the advertisements.

If you notice any such patterns, you will know how much influence media has on you.

While talking about the mass media such as radio and television, it should be remembered that they have different features and serve different purposes in different societies. Denis McQuail, a media theoretician, discusses four models of media existing in different societies. They are:

1. The liberal-pluralist or market chapter

Liberal pluralism is a dominant perspective linked to capitalism. The liberal pluralists are concerned about the individual choice and freedom of people. They see society as a complex of competing groups and interests and none of them predominant all the time. They believe that the State cannot impose power on media and the public do not have much say in media. So media in this model is an autonomous voice of societies which is ultimately controlled by the market.

2. The social responsibility or public interest chapter

The public interest is the interest of large proportions of the public. Public interest clearly involves matters that are held to affect a considerable number of people. The social responsibility or the public interest model considers media as part of the people, for the people and expressing the people’s concerns or what might seem as public concern. The model allows the intervention of the government.

3. The professional chapter

The model is based on the idea that the guardianship of standards belong to the ‘press’ itself and to the journalistic profession. However, this model gives importance to ethics of media.

4. The alternative media model

The alternative media model represents a range of non- mainstream media with different aims and origins … It emphasizes the rights of subcultures with their particularistic values and promotes inter subjective understanding and a real sense of community. (7-11)

It should be noted that all these models have their own peculiarities. You could learn it better if you could identify examples for each of these from the advertisements and TV programmes that you watch. Try to choose programmes from different channels for your analysis.

All the models given above, more or less, define the roles of media in a civil society. Clifford G. Christians and others have suggested four roles of media based on the conflict between dominant political and economic powers with the citizens (common people):

“monitoral” (the reporting, culture, art, culture, politics and so on)
“facilitative” (serve the civilians with information and news)
“radical” (question political, religious, ethical and other societal structures)
“collaborative” (helping governmental and nongovernmental agencies to communicate with people) (139-220)

Mass media are commonly considered to include radio, film, newspapers, magazines, books and video games as well as Internet blogs, podcasts, and video sharing. Though we will not analyse every single media, we will touch upon some of them. The first and the oldest is print media.

1. Print Media

Who invented the printing press? It was Johannes Gutenberg who invented the printing press in the 15th century. This was the beginning of mass communication. After the invention, a German printer developed the first mobile printing press. He attached a printing press to a steam engine. Printed media became a global phenomenon. Newspapers, magazines, posters and books were published. Once it was printed, the materials were transported to various places. People felt that the world was shrinking. A sense of oneness was felt among people across cultures. It also took cultures across geographical boundaries quickly and efficiently. Political scientist Benedict Anderson calls this phenomenon “imagined community.” Anderson argued that when there is an exchange of cultures, it is not merely fusion of various cultures but gives rise to the formation of a new culture. This new culture is called imagined community.

2. Radio

Radio became a popular form of mass media only during the early 20th century. Since radio was less expensive than telephones, the popularity of the medium was explosive. The specialty of radio was that a group of people could listen to a single radio set. Audio advertising was the new form of marketing for many companies. At a later stage, community radios became popular. In this new radio medium, the community members decided what advertisements and programmes should be transmitted. It turned out to be an inclusive medium.

3. Television

Broadcast television is the dominant form of mass media. Some social critics argued that television fostered a homogenous, conformist culture by reinforcing ideas about what life looked like. Contrary to the argument, television also contributed to the understanding of the diversity of cultures and experiences. For example, when live news on Kargil war was screened on television, the people of India were experiencing the action of war. Similarly, there are studies on how cricket (watching cricket on TV) adds to the collective nationalistic feeling or commitment. Though television became popular in the forties and the fifties, it reached every nooks and corners of India especially after the introduction of the cable TV.

4. Advertising

Robert Kolker defines advertising as a combination of art, psychology, and social enginee ring. It employs graphic arts to tell persuading stories to lure people to buy a product. It is assumed that advertising should create desire in its audience and the desire should result in the purchase of the products being sold. The concern here is not merely to define advertising but to see how advertising addresses individuals, gender, race, age, economic situation, education and taste.

Advertising brings every methodology it can muster to bear on one thing: creating desire in its audience – desire to purchase the product being sold – or at least regard it in positive light. But try as they may, advertisers cannot account for every individual, for all the vicissitudes and varieties of gender, race, age, economic situation, education, and taste. This is where a cultural perspective of advertising gains relevance.

If you read an advertisement closely, you might be able to find a pattern, in fact, a narrative which makes people believe that there is something wrong or missing in our lives if the product in question is not used by us. We tend to blindly trust the advertisements for its cultural value and impact. Various strategies are employed to get their products across people: sexualization (attributing qualities of sex to objects, mythical characters, God s or products), repetition (how many times do we watch the same advertisements in a day) and allusion (referring only to something and not addressing it).

Let us have a look at “Image 1” and “Image 2” given in the “Audio-Visual Quadrant” section

If we analyse the images given, it evident that it thematically and strategically conveys the same meaning (almost a repetitive theme). The advertisement opportunistically uses the rivalry between two countries, seemingly giving a solution to the political scenario. The presentation is in such a way that coca cola company has taken an initiative towards strengthening individual ties between people in India and Pakistan. But we do not know how it is done. Ultimately, we realize that the advertisement actually sells a multinational product.

5. Popular Cinema

Undoubtedly, cinema is a mass medium. An important reason for it to be popular is the entertainment that it provides, which ultimately dispenses leisure and relaxation to its viewers. Cinema culture throws light on various aspects of cinema: posters, reviews, interviews of actors, staged discussions on the film, promotion of music prior to the release of the film, trailers, advertisements and teaser-clips on the internet. When culture is in focus, the influence of the film on the people and the influence of the people of film in all its dimensions should be considered. Actually, people’s participation in the film (not merely as customers) in the ideology of the film itself cannot be undermined. Most of the commercial films cater to the need of the people. What would the people want to watch on a screen? More than what, it is evident that they would like to see something different in every film. It is to cater to this demand that the filmmakers choose exotic locales, foreign music patterns, superhuman action sequences and farcical comedy. In that sense, the aesthetic appeal of cinema is designed by the audience, though indirectly. Some of the popular themes in Bollywood cinema are nationalism, violence, family drama, political drama, and transformation of the ordinary to extraordinary. To understand the cultural and social political aspects of a film, the following questions could be helpful:

What are the public symbols in the film? (public symbols are symbols that have common meaning in a cultural context)
What is the main theme and sub-themes of the film?
What purpose do the songs and dance sequences serve?
Is the film intended to be watched by a particular audience?
How does the film portray women, men and children?
Is the film (the story/plot) based on any stardom?

Let us have a look at “Image 3” given in the “Audio-Visual Quadrant” section

This is a picture of Amitabh Bachchan and his son Abhishek Bachchan amidst a huge crowd. It is difficult to spot him as the crowd is so maddening and the image is aerially shot. Why do you think that the people are in a mad rush to see the Bachchans? Amitabh Bachchan is a cinematically, politically, socially constructed icon who has much influence in the construction of Indian media itself. In fact, it is the media which has created this icon. It is seen that all social, personal and mass media contribute to the creation of this icon (his blogs are very popular in social media).

6. New Media

New media includes the newest forms of communication platforms on the internet like facebook, youtube, twitter, whatsApp, messengers and so on. The internet has redefined media. Creation of content has become quite simple that any citizen who has access to internet via mobile or PC can engage in it. Creation, distribution of documents (audio, video, typed, personal messages and others) and feedback (from the viewers/readers) have become instantaneous that the marketing possibilities are immense and also quicker. This new media culture and various fads (Oxford dictionary defines fads as “an intense and widely shared enthusiasm for something, especially one that is short- lived; a craze”) are in fact exploited by the advertisers and brands in marketing. Some believe that the internet is a great medium beca use it allows uninterrupted watching of films.

David Beer in his book titled, Popular Culture and New Media: The Politics of Circulation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), observes a connection between memory and objects in new media. He calls this “circulation” of culture and argues that this is the basic formula for the popularity of the medium. It is undoubted that internet and the internet culture has become part of our daily life.

Have a look at “Image 4” given in the “Audio-Visual Quadrant” section

This is a screen shot from the film Lootera on YouTube. This is a very popular film online with over 729,927 clicks (people who watched it / or attempted to watch it). The yellow bands on the timeline of the movie show the number of advertisements on it. If you have been watching film on YouTube, you would have noticed that advertisements appear on the screen in different ways. Some of them appear as transparent strips without a cut in the film. Some of them appear outside the screen. Some of them appear as links on the screen. All the 12 advertisements in the film Lootera on YouTube pause the film for almost 30 seconds to show the advertisements. This is very much similar to the pattern that Televisions adopt – aggressive way of advertising, giving no importance to continued viewership.

Watch the YouTube link given in the “Audio -Visual Quadrant” section

The 34-second Fevicol advertisement is the best example for the commercialization of national integration. The use of the national language along with the typical imagery of boat race of Kerala is a subtle expression of national integration. It uses an ethnic wooden chair (which symbolizes tradition) as a symbol. The tradition of India and the integration of various cultural communities are “bonded by Fevicol”. The ridiculous analogy is sell a product. The advertisement could even evoke one’s memory of a place or some experience. If such a connection is made, the advertisement stays in one’s memory and one would want to watch the advertisement over and over to rediscover the past/lost experience.

7. Conclusion

To conclude, media has been changing its face according to the cultural, political and historical changes in societies. It has also adapted to the specific cultural patterns of the people. I have a question now. Do you think any form of media has become outdated at this point of time? Is it that people do not buy newspapers anymore because minute-by- minute updates are available online? Well, the media theorist Henry Jenkins has an answer to the question. He argues that there is a sort of technological convergence. When one says that a particular medium is outdated he/she is referring to the end of it. But if we look at the Indian scenario, it is observed that newspapers are thriving in spite of the new media boom. According to Jenkins, convergence is a process where all the media co-exist. Though plainly said, this is not a simple process; it is a very complex process where in every media production and consumption is done at the same time. Culturally and socially this space and time is manipulated by people and media. Jenkins proposes five kinds of convergence. They are:

Economic Convergence (One single company having economic interests in two or more different kinds of media; for example, Sun Network has a satellite dish platform, a television channel and a film producing company.)
Organic Convergence (A person chatting online and watching television at the same time.)
Cultural Convergence (a cultural character or mythical character or an idea appearing in different media in different form like the mythical character like Bhima and Krishna who are religious characters transformed into cartoon characters, computer game characters and toys.)
Global Convergence (integration of global cultures with the local cultures; the Barbie doll that you get in any fancy store is a good example for it.)
Technological Convergence (merging of technologies; using animation in documentary films have become a fashion among contemporary documentary filmmakers). (Jenkins 1- 21) Can you find an example each for the five kinds of convergence mentioned above from your cultural context?

SECTION 3: Reading Media and Popular Culture

In educational contexts, a very important approach to understand the connection between popular culture and media is “media literacy.” What is media literacy? “Media literacy is the skill or the ability to “access, analyse, evaluate and create media messages of all kinds” (For further details refer to the online source on Media Literacy Project given in the section “Fo r Further Reading”). The skills needed to decipher a message, as proposed by The Media Literacy Project, are listed below:

“Understand how media messages create meaning
Identify who created a particular media message
Recognize what the media maker wants us to believe or do
Name the “tools of persuasion” used
Recognize bias, spin, misinformation and lies
Discover the part of the story that’s not being told
Evaluate media messages based on our own experiences, beliefs and values … ”

(For further details refer to the online source on Media Literacy Project given in the section “For Further Reading”)

1. Panel Culture

Panel literally means “a set of typically rectangular frames.” In the present context, panel culture could necessarily mean any form of popular culture which is represented in a series of frames. This could include wood paneling, embroidery work, series of glass paintings (usually seen in Churches), series of murals, paintings, cartoons and comics. Pramod K. Nayar in his book, Reading Culture: Theory, Praxis, Politics, uses this word in a more restrictive sense to discuss comics which are without argument a necessary part of our lives. Even if you do not buy comic books, you stumble upon them in various media – like newspapers and facebook.

It can be argued that “comics” are nothing but “picture-farce.” Comics are an integral component of public visual culture because (they are) … artifacts used as both entertainment and educational mechanisms for children by schools, teachers and parents. Contesting the general idea that comics are meant for light reading, comics evidently, are a serious business. The genre has attained a great deal of academic respectability with numerous studies on the ideology, cultural politics and (its) narrative modes.

Amar Chitra Katha is a prominent reflection of the popular culture of India. Some of the valid reasons towards this argument are:

It is prominent because of its mass sales, publicity and popularity.
It is political, religious and mythical in nature.
It serves to bridge gap between grandparents and children and between joint and nuclear family systems.
It delivers identity, history and culture
It discusses the long-drawn debates on castes and representation.

How do we critically read/analyse a comic strip? You could ask the following questions to the comic book to arrive at a framework to analyse the same.

How does it reflect life?
Does it reflect the value system of a society/community?
Does it seem to have any negative influence on children like highlighting anti-social elements, violence and abuse?
What is the tone of the comic? Is it humorous or serious?
Who is the speaker?
Discuss characterization, dialogue, plot and scenes.
Apart from the pictorial space, do you see any extra-effects like sound, emotions, descriptions of location or any such?
Do the comic strips have some connection/coherence between them in terms of symbolism, expressions, events, situations and mental states?
Who is the hero – a common man, superhero, monster, anthropomorphs, natural elements, adult, child, high class person or low class person?
What does the hero do for living? What are his other engagements? Does he crack jokes, resolve issues, uses weapons, fight, do social service or save the country/world?
How is a man/woman represented?
Are there any political subjects being discussed?
What do you think is the intend of the comic book?

Have a look at “Image 5” given in the “Audio-Visual Quadrant” section

If we analyse the story “Parting of Friends” from the comic book The Inimitable Birbal, we realize that the title completely nullifies the suspense element of the story. In fact it is the end of the story that is being declared as the title. Thus the purpose of the serious-story is not to create suspense, but to evidently convey an instruction – be dutiful / or choose your friends who is aware of your duties / choose friends which suit your social status. The value-orientation that the story has is however, consciously, made implicit. Birbal is a man of wit and he usually saves the king and his people from embarrassment/danger/trap. The comic book excites one’s thought then emotion.

2. Cabinet Culture

Cabinet literally means “shelves for storing or displaying articles.” Museum is an example of cabinet culture. Similar to comics, museum is a part of the contemporary popular culture. Museum concerns itself with the cultural politics of display. The study of museum as popular culture looks at four aspects of museum: 1. The object, 2. The context of the display, 3. The public it purports to serve, and 4. The reception of the objects. Now why do we consider museums as popular culture? The reasons are:

What is presented in the museum are heritage and cultural artifacts and thus serve to educate and inform.
Museums are formalized arrangements of objects displayed for the public.
Museums are also commercial centres.
They are spaces of tourist visit.
The museum is a site of the complex interplay between social histories of collecting, classifying, displaying and entertaining.

Have a look at “Image 6” given in the “Audio-Visual Quadrant” section

The opening lines from the guide book to the Westminster Abbey, London – one of the most popular tourist spots within the UK:

“The Abbey is a living Church that enshrines the history of the British nation. It is not a museum, although there are many things worth seeing.”

The phrase “living church” signifies that the church is functional and is used for worship and prayers. Though the opening lines in the book clearly state that it is not a museum, it contradicts it by saying that “there are many things work seeing.” If we read through the lines we know that though the church is open for tourists, it should not be merely seen as a museum but should be seen with respect and order. The images given clearly state that the church is being considered a tourist spot making it part of the popular culture.

3. Brochure culture

Brochures have become an inseparable part of our lives. When we open the newspaper every morning we usually find a number of brochures promoting products or institutions. When we step into a hotel, a salon, a supermarket or a museum, we usually come across various kinds of colourful brochures which we could pick up free of cost. Since travel has become a fad for the rising middle-class people, the department of tourism offers number of brochures for promoting places of interest to prospective travellers. We will analyse a tourist brochure to understand brochure culture. What the brochures do is to give a sense of the place to the traveler even before he/she actually sees the place. It is assumed that all travelers travel to only familiar (known through internet or heard from others) places. The brochures familiarize the people with the place/location. Though the promotional materials are assumed to recreate (to create a sense of experience even before actually experiencing it) the place, it certainly provides information on the place. However, Andrew Wernick, a culturalist, thinks that promotional materials have a rhetoric quality, which should be seen as poetic language. What is the purpose of this rhetoric of tourist brochure? It not only projects the specific place/site but also excites and persuades a potential tourist to get interested in a specific place. “Tourist gaze,” however, considers tourism as a negative concept. John Urry in his pioneering work, The Tourist Gaze, defines the concept as expectations that the tourists have on ethnic communities in search of their authentic experience. This is seen as a colonial gaze on indigenous / ethnic communities. Thus tourism brings in issues of power politics as well. Fernando Ortiz’s concept “transculturation” essentially continues this discussion (Transculturation is the convergence of cultures). How do we analyse a tourist brochure?

Discuss the representation of the place by scrutinising the photographs on the brochure
Analyse the tagline and descriptions (the language of persuasion and its rhetoric)
Check the kind of information given. For example, addresses, telephone numbers, travel route, website IDs and so on

You might ask the following questions while browsing through a brochure:

How is the place represented in the brochure exalted using rhetoric of language?
Does the brochure address the tourist in terms of leisure, health, entertainment, attraction, imagination, spirituality, history, culture and art?
Is the place explicitly or implicitly commodified in the brochure?
How are the people commodified?

Have a look at “Image 7” given in the “Audio-Visual Quadrant” section

The brochure gives a highly romanticized picture of Kerala. The very attractive photographs are arranged in such a way that the place would cater to people with various interests – like tourists interested in history, medicine, ethnicity, nature, forest, trekking, wildlife, art and food.

AUDIO-VISUAL QUADRANT

Image 1 – Coca Cola Advertisement

Image 2 – Coca Cola Advertisement

Image 3 – Amitabh Bachchan in a crowd of Fans

Image 4 – YouTube Advertisements

Link – Commercial on Fevicol

Watch this any-time retrievable advertisement on Fevicol on YouTube.com.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gR3SzL9IMQY

Image 5 – Comic Story Titled “Parting of Friends”

Image 6 – Westminster Abbey

Image 7 – Brochure for Kerala Tourism

you can view video on Media and Popular Culture

Reference:

McQuail, Denis. McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory. 6th Ed. Los Angeles, London and other places: Sage, 2010. Print.
Balnaves, Mark, Stephanie Donald, and Brian Shoesmith. Media Theories and Approaches – A Global Perspective. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Print.
Berger, John. Ways of Seeing. London: Penguin, 1972. Print.
Christians, Clifford G., Theodore L. Glasser, Denis McQuail, Kaarle Nordenstreng and Robert A. White. Normative Theories of the Media: Journalism in Democratic Societies. USA: University of Illinois, 2009. Print.
Croft, Harry. Eating Disorders: Body Image and Advertising. Healthy Place. 11 Dec. 2008. Web. <http://www.healthyplace.com/eating-disorders/articles/eating-disorders-body-image- and-advertising/>.
Farell, James T. The League of Frightened Philistines. New York: Vanguard Press, 1990. 176. Print.
Hartley, John. Key Concepts in communication, Cultural and Media Studies. London, Canada and USA: Taylor & Francis, 2002. Print.
Haselstein, Ulla and Peter Schneck. Popular Culture: An Introduction. New York: Knopf, 2001. Print.
Jenkins, Henry. Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. New York and London: New York University Press, 2006. Print.
Kolker, Robert. Media Studies –An Introduction. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. Print.
Mukerji, Chandra, and Michael Schudson. Popular Culture. Sandiego: California UP, 1890. Print.
Nayar, Pramod K. Reading Culture: Theory, Praxis, Politics. New Delhi, Thousand Oaks, London: Sage Publications, 2006. Print.
Trechmann E.J. The Essays of Montaigne. New York: Oxford UP, 1935. Print.
Waugh, Coulton. The Comics. New York: Macmillan Co, 1947. Print. http://www.credos.org.uk/write/Documents/Jacqueline_Waugh_- _Does_advertising_shape_or_reflect_popular_culture.pdf
https://medialiteracyproject.org/sites/default/files/resources/Intro_to_Media_Literacy.pdf

Storyboarding/Instructional Design

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