9 The Second Language Learner and Society

Dr. Neeru Tandon

Learning outcome:

This module deals with the second language learner and society. It also examines historical, current and developing understandings of the relationships between language, learners and society. On completion of this module, students should have increased knowledge and understanding of evolving views of language and learners in the field of language learning and teaching, increased understanding of the social nature of language learning and the interactions between individual learners, groups of learners, and society more broadly. Multiple-choice exercises will help students in assessing their knowledge and understanding of the work. Bibliography, list of websites and You Tube videos will help them in their in-depth study and further reading. Critical quotes and quotes from the book will also help them in understanding various aspects of the module.

Objectives:

to develop awareness and understanding of the history of methods and approaches in language teaching, through the lens of evolving views of language and learners
to develop awareness and understanding of the complexity of language learning and language learning contexts
to develop awareness and understanding of the social nature of language learning
to develop students’ reflective awareness of their own language learning

What is second language? What is learning?

What is the language in second language learning?

We use language in order to understand the world around us and in order for others to understand us. The individual’s language develops through co-operation and interaction with others.Learning a second language has a positive impact on learning as a whole,,“There’s also a very positive benefit for the child’s future employment potential, self-esteem and personal growth.” Research also shows that second language instruction improves the development of analytical, abstract and creative thinking and enhances problem-solving skills, especially if the second language is taught when the child is very young. Knowing two or more languages also helps children on scholastic aptitude tests, including the tests taken to determine acceptance into postsecondary programs. The word ‘language’ is understood in different ways including :

Language as a property of human beings,
Language as an institutional abstraction,
Language as a collection of sentences,
Language as social behaviour, as knowledge in the mind,
Language as a form of action.

Several factors related to students’ first and second languages shape their second language learning. These factors include the linguistic distance between the two languages, students’ level of proficiency in the native language and their knowledge of the second language, the dialect of the native language spoken by the students (i.e., whether it is standard or nonstandard), the relative status of the students’ language in the community, and societal attitudes toward the students’ native language. Specific languages can be more or less difficult to learn, depending on how different from or similar they are to the languages the learner already knows.

What is the second in second language learning?

-Second by official fiat when other languages are laid down as first by law,
– Second by chronological sequence in that the person learns it after the first,
– Second by priority, usually discussed in terms of dominance,
– Second contrasted with foreign by function or location.

What is learning in second language learning?

‘’Learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing, existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information.’’

The meaning of ‘language’ and the chosen interpretation of ‘second’ dictates what you call learning – the appropriate learning theory and the research design. Learning language as a set of sentences is different from learning language for social relationships. The more academically sophisticated the student’s native language knowledge and abilities, the easier it will be for that student to learn a second language.

Who is Second LanguageLearner?

When we think about the language learners themselves, we need to keep several factors in mind. We must remember that students, like the ones profiled earlier, have diverse needs, backgrounds, and goals. When we think about adolescent language learners, we need to remember that peer pressure and home support can strongly affect their desire and ability to learn a second language.

Homogeneous curricula and materials are problematic enough if all learners are from a single language and cultural background, but they are clearly indefensible given the great diversity in today’s classrooms, which requires a different conception of curricula and a different approach to materials. Differentiation and individualization are not a luxury in such a scenario; they are a necessity.

English-language learners are increasing in India, but they are also a tremendously diverse group representing numerous languages, cultures, ethnicities, nationalities, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Educators use a number of terms when referring to English-language learners, including English learners (or ELs), limited English proficient(LEP) students, non-native English speakers, language-minority students, and either bilingual students or emerging bilingual students.

English-language learners, or ELLs, are students who are unable to communicate fluently or learn effectively in English, who often come from non-English-speaking homes and backgrounds, and who typically require specialized or modified instruction in both the English language and in their academic courses. The term English-language learner is often used interchangeably with limited English proficient student, but based on social conditioning and situations they may be defined differently.

TEN PROBLEMS FOR ELLS:

In second language learning, peer pressure often undermines the goals set by parents and teachers. For learners of English as a second language, speaking like a native speaker may unconsciously be regarded as a sign of no longer belonging to their native-language peer group. We can list the major factors as follows:

Language Distance: The distance between the native language and the target language first of all influences learner’s second language development. Languages can be comparatively more or less difficult to learn, depending on how different or similar they are.
Native language development: In addition to varying levels of native language development, high school students have varying amounts of prior knowledge of English, ranging from conversational skills acquired from contacts with the English- speaking world, to formal — mostly grammatical — knowledge obtained in English as a foreign language classes in their countries of origin. An effective program needs to use the students’ prior knowledge as a basis for further development, while at the same time being aware of the specific demands that a student’s language history may place on second language learning.
Lack of Intrinsic Motivation: A crucial factor in successful learning is motivation, especially intrinsic motivation. According to Deci and Ryan (1985; see also Deci, 1995), intrinsic motivation refers to the basic human needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Intrinsically motivated activities are those that the learner engages in for their own sake, because of their intrinsic value, interest, and challenge. Such activities present the best possible opportunities for learning to the student. Unfortunately, the high school environment contains many external threats, rewards, and controls, including an excessive focus on grades, tests, and behavioral discipline, all of which tend to undermine intrinsic motivation, to the detriment of students’ progress (Kohn 1993; Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde & Whalen, 1993; Deci 1995).
Dialect and register differences: At the social level, learners may need to learn a dialect and a register in school, which differ from the ones they are used to hearing in their daily lives. It is natural to resist, consciously or unconsciously, acquiring speech patterns, which differ significantly from more familiar ones. Such patterns seem “unnatural,” or even constitute a sort of “betrayal” of one’s loyalties to a particular group or philosophy.
Linguistic prestige:The consideration of dialects naturally leads us think about the elationship between the students’ first and second languages, the relative prestige of the two languages, and their related cultural and ethnic associations. If the first language has a very low status vis á vis the second, then second language acquisition is in many cases more difficult and problematic, since it involves overcoming a psychological as well as a social gap. In addition, for those learners who manage to make this jump, they may lose their native language, which can have several negative effects on themselves and their peers: they may have to “give up” on their own background in order to join the more prestigious target society.
Rural background: While most English-language learners were born in the cities of India, their parents and grandparents are often from rural background that speaks their native language at home. In addition, English-language learners may face a variety of challenges that could adversely affect their learning progress and academic achievement, such as poverty, familial transiency, or non-citizenship status, to name just a few. In some extreme cases, for example, adolescent-age students may have had little or no formal schooling, and they may suffer from medical or psychological conditions related to their experiences.
Having different goals and ambitions: Learners are not only diverse in terms of their prior languages; they also have different goals and ambitions. A learner’s goals may determine the way in which he or she will use the language being learned, how native-like the pronunciation will be, how elaborate, in lexical and grammatical terms utterances will be, and how much energy will be expended in efforts to understand messages in the target language.
Peer group effects: Teenagers tend to be heavily influenced by their peer group and in second language learning, peer pressure often undermines the goals parents and teachers set in terms of proficiency and attainment. In foreign language learning (e.g., French or Spanish) this often reduces the desire of the student to work towards a native-like accent, since the sounds of the target language may be regarded as “funny.” In English as a second language, speaking like a native speaker may unconsciously be regarded as a sign of no longer “belonging” to the peer group and may lead to rejection.
Home support: Home support is very important for a successful second language learner, although as we saw before, this support may be present in noninterventionist ways (Bhachu, 1985) and consequently misunderstood by school personnel. Furthermore, it is sometimes believed that such support should take the form of speaking the second language in the home (see, e.g., recommendations made in Rodriguez, 1984), but it is far more important for the parents to value both the native and the second language, to communicate (in whichever language is most convenient), and show support for and interest in the student’s progress.
Role models: In addition to the previously mentioned social factors, it is important for students to have positive and genuine role models who symbolize the value of bilingualism, that is, the acquisition of a second language without parallel loss of the first language.

One solution to this problem is for teachers and other school personnel to stress that the acquisition of native-like proficiency in English does not mean losing one’s peer- group dialect or street language. Everyone is capable of code switching, and indeed, to some extent everyone does this when moving in and out of different groups during work and leisure. The value of an ability to switch from Standard English to teenage English, and from English to the native language, or from the familiar register in the native language to its academic register, should be highlighted. In this way the stigma that may be attached to speaking fluent English can be counteracted by a realization of the requirements of the situated self, which should not undermine the enduring self (Spindler & Spindler, 1993).

The learning process and Learning Style

When we think of second language development as a learning process, we need to remember that different students have different learning styles, that internal motivation aids learning, and that the quality of classroom interaction matters a great deal.

Methods of second language teaching have generally assumed that learners learn in identical ways. However, research studies have made it clear that there are great individual differences among learners in the ways they learn a second language (Skehan, 1989). Some of these differences can be grouped together as learning styles, which are cognitive, physical, and social preferences for certain ways of learning. Some learners may be more analytically oriented and thrive on picking apart words and sentences. Others may be more holistically oriented, needing to experience overall patterns of language in meaningful contexts before being able to make sense of the linguistic parts and forms. Some learners are more visually-oriented, others more geared to sounds; some require silence for study, while others prefer a busy and noisy environment. Some prefer to work on their own, and others work best in cooperative groups.

When we think of second language development as a learning process, we need to remember that different students have different learning styles, that intrinsic motivation aids learning, and that the quality of classroom interaction matters a great deal. One final variable in second language learning is the quality of classroom interaction. Language learning is not the transmission of facts about language or a succession of rote memorization drills; rather it is the result of meaningful interaction with others in the target language. Lecturing and recitation are therefore not the most appropriate modes of language use in the second language classroom.

Many children who are ELLs are put into English-speaking classrooms where they understand nothing of what they are hearing. In this “sink or swim” situation, many flounder. Imagine traveling to Beijing and taking a social studies course taught only in Mandarin. Learning would be most difficult; yet we expect our ELLs to automatically decode English and succeed academically in an analogous situation.

This idea of “the more English the better” is fallacious and can actually slow down children’s learning considerably. Thomas and Collier (1998) state that the average native English speaker gains about ten months of academic growth in one ten-month academic year. ELL students must outgain the native speaker by making 1.5 year’s progress in English for six successive school years. Thus, in order to have skills that are commensurate with those of native English speakers, ELLs must make nine years progress in six years. It is no wonder that many ELLs flounder-not because they have language-learning disabilities, but because they are put into such difficult learning situations in our schools.

There is one more dimension that society finds the label of “fully English proficient” and assumes that it is acceptable to give English standardized tests to these children— after all; they are fully proficient in English! Students who have developed conversational English that appears fluent and adequate for everyday communication, still struggle with CALP and have difficulty in areas such as reading, writing, spelling, science, social studies, and other subject areas where there is little context to support the language being heard or read. This ” BICS-CALP gap ” leads professionals to falsely assume that the children have language-learning disabilities.

Language learning does not occur as a result of the transmission of facts about language or from a succession of rote memorization drills. It is the result of opportunities for meaningful interaction with others in the target language. Teachers need to move toward more richly interactive language use, such as that found in instructional conversations (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988) and collaborative classroom work (Adger, Kalyanpur, Peterson, & Bridger, 1995). Social and cultural dimensions of second language learning andteaching.

Language attitudes in the learner, the peer group, the school, the neighborhood, and society at large can have an enormous effect on the second language learning process, both positive and negative. In particular, they need to understand that learning a second language does not mean giving up one’s first language or dialect. Rather, it involves adding a new language or dialect to one’s repertoire.

According to Deci and Ryan (1985), intrinsic motivation is related to basic human needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Intrinsically motivated activities are those that the learner engages in for their own sake because of their value, interest, and challenge. Such activities present the best possible opportunities for learning.

Social benefits of Learning English as a second language

Language in use includes both cultural exposure and cultural expression. This means that language competence is a social and cultural competence. Accordingly the new perspective of language acquisition is less concerned with the learning process as an individual development, and more concerned with the learning process as a socializing one where the learner gains cultural competence, which enables him or her to participate in society. This is where foreign language and mother tongue learning meet in the sense that, on the one hand, cultural insight, seen as an intrinsic part of mother tongue competence, may be influenced and broadened through foreign language competence, and, on the other hand, developing cultural awareness through mother tongue competence, seen as text competence, might support the learner in the process of acquiring a foreign language.

Language learners’voices

Students need to have positive and realistic role models who demonstrate the value of being proficient in more than one language. It is also helpful for students to read literature about the personal experiences of people from diverse language and dialect backgrounds. Through discussions of the challenges experienced by others, students can develop a better understanding of their own challenges.

Research has shown that individuals vary greatly in the ways they learn a second language (Skehan, 1989). Some learners are more analytically oriented and thrive on picking apart words and sentences. Others are more globally oriented, needing to experience overall patterns of language in meaningful contexts before making sense of the linguistic parts and forms. Some learners are more visually oriented; others are more geared to sounds.

Language learning as life-learning

A basic educational principle is that new learning should be based on prior experiences and existing skills. Although this principle is known and generally agreed upon by educators, in practice it is often overshadowed by the administrative convenience of the linear curriculum and the single textbook. Differentiation and individualization are not a luxury in this context: They are a necessity.

Support from home is very important for successful second language learning. Some educators believe that parents of English language learners should speak only English in the home (see, e.g., recommendations made in Rodriguez, 1982). However, far more important than speaking English is that parents value both the native language and English, communicate with their children in whichever language is most comfortable, and show support for and interest in their children’s progress.

The complex processes of second language acquisition

We can examine these contextual factors by examining second language learning from several different perspectives, which include the language, the learner, and the learning process. Each of these perspectives has its individual, its social, and its societal side. This can be visually represented as follows:

We must realize that learning — especially language learning — is not always the result of teaching, and teaching does not necessarily lead to learning. We need to understand the complex phenomena of language learning from a variety of perspectives, for learning a language, which is so central to our thoughts and social relationships, cannot be reduced to a simple transmission of facts and automated skills.

9.12 Social Pressures of Learning English as a second Language: ESL students often have difficulty interacting with native speakers in school. Some ESL students avoid interactions with native speakers because of their frustration or embarrassment at their poor English. Immigrant students often also lack knowledge of popular culture, which limits their conversations with native speakers to academic topics. In classroom group activities with native speakers, ESL students often do not participate, again because of embarrassment about their English, but also because of cultural differences: their native cultures may value silence and individual work at school in preference to social interaction and talking in class. These interactions have been found to extend to teacher–student interactions as well. In most mainstream classrooms, teacher-led discussion is the most common form of lesson. In this setting, some ESL students will fail to participate, and often have difficulty-understanding teachers because they talk too fast, do not use visual aids, or use native colloquialisms. ESL students also have trouble getting involved with extracurricular activities with native speakers for similar reasons. Students fail to join extra-curricular activities because of the language barrier, cultural emphasis of academics over other activities, or failure to understand traditional pastimes in their new country.

9.13 Some common misconceptions

Misconception One: Learning English as Quickly as Possible should be the First Priority for Students

Successfully teaching adolescents to speak English as a second language alone, then, is not sufficient to enable them to succeed as they will be required to perform at sophisticated levels of cognition and in subject-specific areas. If a narrow focus is placed on the linguistic development of English, then it will not be easy for students to catch up academically to their native counterparts. As Virginia Collier (1995) points out, English-speaking students do not wait for second language learners to achieve their academic level; they themselves are continuously expanding their linguistic and cognitive command in English. The future success of English learners, paradoxically, depends on much more than learning English, involving the crucial ability to use the central concepts, canons, and discourse that is associated with different disciplines.

Misconception Two: If Students Can Converse in English, They Can Handle Mainstream Courses Taught in English

It is sometimes assumed in schools that a student’s ability in everyday oral communication is a valid measure of his or her competence to use language in a wide variety of settings, including demanding academic work. However, gaps exist between everyday and academic language use, for first-language as well as second- language speakers (see Cazden 1988; Heath, 1983); these gaps occur between school demands and social experiences and include differences in school-based and home- based value systems, goals, and experiential sources of knowledge. Such gaps between home and school can lead to difficulties with providing English language learners with access to academic content, unless a great deal of instructional and linguistic support is provided (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; Lambert and Cazabon, 1994; Delpit, 1995).

Misconception Three: Native Language is a Crutch that Impedes a Student’s Progress in English

Opponents of native language instruction often argue that the time taken to teach in the native language reduces the time available for second language exposure, therefore reducing the rate of second language learning. They assume that more exposure to English is better. A related assumption is that the first language interferes with the second language, so that the chances for second language proficiency are increased if the first language is excluded as much as possible. A third assumption is that students will not learn the second language if the first language is available for communication and academic instruction. In such a scenario, proponents believe, the students are not motivated to learn the second language because they do not need it to communicate.

Cummins’ (1981) interdependence hypothesis also refutes the assumption that maximum exposure to the second language, as soon as possible, enhances the speed of acquisition of the language, as well as the academic performance of its learners.

Thus, studying via the medium of the native language does not delay or impede academic performance in another language, but rather facilitates it, since the ability to perform in a second language depends on the ability to perform in the first.

Misconception Four: All Adolescent Immigrants can progress at the same rate in learning English

As we all know, students with differing personal circumstances perform differently on academic tasks at their grade level. Thus, it seems natural to assume that students will vary considerably in the amount of time it takes to learn academic English.

Language acquisition, both first and subsequent, at whatever age, is an arduous task requiring enormous investments in time, attention, effort and emotional engagement. Some researchers (McLaughlin, 1990) argue that teenagers are intrinsically better language learners than either younger or older learners, since a teenager already has a well-developed cognitive base and learning skills. On the other hand, the linguistic sophistication required of teenagers is greater than that required of young children. While children may only need to be surrounded by language, in a positive climate, to acquire a language, teenagers may need much more than linguistic exposure — the student must be able to be involved and engaged with communicative events in order to profit from them and develop communicative competence. The length of time it will take individual students to develop this competence cannot be predicted accurately, especially for immigrant teenagers who have so much to learn about academic English.

Misconception Five: Students’ Academic Progress Depends Solely on Individual Motivation

Students may seem to their teachers to be withdrawn; this withdrawal is often misconstrued as a lack of motivation, when often it stems more from their fear of failure and from a sense that teachers do not truly expect them to succeed. Instead of blaming the students for their “inherent” lack of motivation, teachers need to ask themselves: What kinds of norms, values, beliefs and expectations are being conveyed through spoken and unspoken messages delivered in class every day? How are students made to feel about their capabilities and possibilities for success? Is the climate of the class one that makes students feel capable, valued, challenged and supported? Are they continuously being provided with opportunities for access, engagement and development of their cognitive, academic and linguistic capabilities? If we can provide positive responses to these questions, students will be motivated to learn.

When students experience a mismatch between the world of their family, the world of their peers and the world of school, they will withdraw and success, if at all, will be sporadic. In classrooms where these students do well, “teachers know the students well, are attuned to their needs, and show personal concerns for their lives. These teachers are aware of their students’ precarious academic status and incorporate various pedagogical methods to ensure student involvement” (Phelan, Davidson & Cao, 1991, p. 245). Involvement is possible because students are motivated by the assurance that teachers think they are capable, value the knowledge they bring to the classroom, and will help them achieve beyond their current level of competence (Abi- Nader, 1993; Lucas et al., 1990; Moll & Diaz, 1993).

These five misconceptions dangerously misrepresent the needs of Language Learners and present overly simplistic approaches to second language learning.

SUMMING UP: While this module has focused on the second language acquisition process from the perspective of the language, the learner, and the learning process, it is important to point out that the larger social and cultural contexts of second language development have a tremendous impact on second language learning. The status of students’ ethnic groups in relation to the larger culture can help or hinder the acquisition of the language of mainstream The increase in the number of English-language learners in public schools, coupled with the significant educational challenges faced by this student population, has led to numerous changes in syllabus, Directives, evaluation and teacher preparation. For example, states and national organizations have developed standards to guide curriculum and instruction in English-as a second language programs, while customized teaching and learning materials for English-language learners are now routinely introduced into regular academic courses. In addition, assessments and standardized tests have also been adapted to more accurately measure the academic achievement of English-language learners.

Teacher-preparation programs and certification requirements have also been modified to address relevant skills and training, and many states and national accrediting associations require formal training in the instruction of English-language learners.

Types of English

BE – Business English
EAL – English as an additional language
EAP – English for academic purposes
EFL – English as a foreign language
EIL – English as an international language (see main article at International English)
ELF – English as a lingua franca, a common language that is not the mother tongue of any of the participants in a discussion
ELL – English language learner
ELT – English language teaching
ESL – English as a second language
ESOL – English for speakers of other languages
ESP – English for specific purposes, or English for special purposes (e.g. technical English, scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters)
EST – English for science and technology (e.g. technical English, scientific English)
TEFL – Teaching English as a foreign language. This link is to a page about a subset of TEFL, namely travel-teaching. More generally, see the discussion inTerminology and types.
TESL – Teaching English as a second language
TESOL – Teaching English to speakers of other languages, or Teaching English as a second or other language. Also the short name for TESOL International Association.
TYLE – Teaching Young Learners English. Note that “Young Learners” can mean under 18, or much younger.

you can view video on The Second Language Learner and Society

Reference

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James, H.R., (1952) ‘Education and Statesmanship in India 1797-1910’ , London: Longmans, P.14
Paul Breedle and Bob Burkill (2008) ‘Reflections on Teaching Today and Tomorrow’ Cambridge: CUP, P.86
Scrase, Timothy, J. (2004) ‘The Hegemony of English in India” a paper presented in the 15th Biennial Conference of the Asian studies Association of Australia in Canberra 29 Jun- 2 July 2004, P.1
Scrase, Timothy, J., (2004)- ‘The Hegemony of English in India” a paper presented in the 15th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia in Canberra 29 Jun- 2 July 2004,,P.3
Sharp Henry (1920) ‘Selections from Educational Records’, Calcutta : Superintendent of Government Printing, Pp. 81-83
Thomas, W.P., & Collier, V.P. (1998). Two languages are better than one. Educational Leadership, 12/97-1/98, 23-26.