33 Research Methods II

Dr. Neeru Tandon

Learning outcome

By going through this module students should be able to:

Formulate their own research questions
Learn how to write up a piece of research
Gain insight into research methods within English language
Acquire practical experience in the use of corpora
Review ways of working with electronic text corpora in different types of language studies

Introduction: English Language Teaching (ELT) is in constant movement. The movement is partly due to the dissatisfaction with the previous teaching methods. Classroom oriented studies carried out in the last two decades show that in most of the cases teachers could not be successful in putting the methods into practice in real classroom situations. ELT practitioners come to realize that what has been theorized in the form of method does not usually reflect the reality. ELT researchers are still adhering to the stereotyped mainstream methods and materials developed long time back in other countries. But in recent times researches are being done in India too to challenge the hegemony of mainstream western ELT methodology. The several limitations that are attached to ‘method’ have given birth to ‘post method’, which directs us to reconsider the relationship between theorizers and practitioners of methods. Post method pedagogy does not imply the end of methods but rather it involves an understanding of the limitations of the concept of method and a desire to overcome those limitations. It brings new insight into ELT.

How to Select a Research Design

The preferred Research Design should deal with the purpose and answer the research questions properly. Perhaps most of the research papers use a certain design, and all or most of the professors, or other research counselors use a particular design. If we only know one design, then that is the one we will select.

Another method is to use the design endorsed by a senior colleague or guide. Many researchers believe that only one design, which incidentally happens to be the one they prefer, is genuine and appropriate. They often impact their colleagues— especially those who work under them—to use the same design. It also has the advantage that the professor under or with whom you are working can give logical advice on the research because of acquaintance with the design.

A variation of this approach is that if one wants to publish in a certain journal he tries to publish a certain type of research using a certain type of design. Therefore it increases the chances of publication. It is also possible that researcher might be fascinated by a certain design and in order to learn how it works chooses this design to guide his/her research.

These are some of the reasons, both political and practical, why researchers pick a research design. Having an understanding of research design and methods of data analysis would enable students to challenge primary research literature as well as to estimate secondary sources analytically.

Qualitative approaches to Research

Narrative research
Phenomenological research
Grounded theory research
Ethnographic research
Case-study research

Action Research

Action Research involves a cyclical process of planning, acting, reflecting on the action. One wonders what is action research? And why and how should such research be reported? Before understanding Action Research one should know that action research involves thinking scientifically and not subjectively about real life problems with a view to finding a solution. It is context based or situation based. It is connected with active aspect of education. It is ‘learning by doing’.

‘ The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decision and action is what a number of people have called action research.’- Stephen M Covey ‘Research concerned with school problems carried on by school personnel to improve school practices is action research.’

-Sara Blackwell

Understanding of action research is limited to classroom action research, which involves collecting and analyzing classroom data by teachers, sometimes in cooperation with academics, in order to evaluate and improve teaching practice (Kemmis and McTaggart 2005). Theoretically, action research is usually situated within the qualitative tradition, yet the review of action research reports reveals the use of both qualitative and quantitative approaches, either separately or combined in one study, by which it may seem to be similar to mixed methods research (Creswell 2005). In this article an attempt is made to analyze and compare ELT studies using purely mixed methods and ELT action research studies based on mixing methods in order to find out whether action research studies combining qualitative and quantitative approaches are similar to or different from mixed methods research.

Kurt Lewin is generally considered the father of action research. He first coined the term ‘Action Research’ in his 1946 paper characterization Action Research as a ‘comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action.’ He was concerned with social problems and focused on participative group processes for addressing conflict, crises and change. By the mid 1970s,the field was specified with four major ‘streams’: Traditional Action Research, Contextual Action Research, Radical Action Research and Educational Action Research.

Recent years have seen the growth in popularity of “action research” for English language teachers, yet there is considerable disagreement on the definition and essential elements within that form. The McDonoughs do not appear to prefer action research to other forms, but provide guidance and advice on the various choices a teacher must make. This is an important distinction from Anne Burns’ (1999) Collaborative Action Research for English Language Teachers, which is an excellent guide to conducting one form of action research.

Main features of the Action Research in Language Teaching

A Commitment to educational improvement.
Special kind of Research Question and Action.
‘I ‘at the center of the research.
Systematic monitoring to generate valid data.
Teaching the four skills(LSRW)
Classroom dynamics
Grouping arrangements
Use of materials
Grammar and vocabulary
Assessment policies and techniques.

TYPES OF ACTION RESEARCH

There are two types of Action Research: Participatory and Practical. Participatory Action Research depends on the critical pedagogy put forward by Paulo Freire as a response to the traditional formal models of education where the teacher is at the front and delivers lectures to impart education to passive listeners. In Practical Action Research, practitioners and researchers come together to identify the problems, their underlying causes and possible solutions. Cohen and Manion summarize practical action research : ‘It is essentially an on-the –spot procedure designed to deal with a concrete problem located in an immediate situation— unlike other methods no attempt is made to identify one practical factor and study it in isolation, divorced from the context, giving it meaning.’

STEPS OF ACTION RESEARCH

Selecting a topic or area
Clarifying theories
Identifying research questions
Collecting Data
Analyzing Data
Reporting Results
Taking Informed Actions

Action Research Definitions

Although there is a little general agreement as to an all-encompassing definition of action research, it is important to realize that action research can be defined and is being implemented in many different ways in the field. For example, Wallace (1998) maintained that action research is “basically a way of reflecting on your teaching … by systematically collecting data on your everyday practice and analyzing it in order to come to some decisions about what your future practice should be” (p. 4). In this view, action research is a mode of inquiry undertaken by teachers and is more oriented to instructor and learner development than it is to theory building, although it can be used for the latter. Although according to Chaudron (2000), action research does not “imply any particular theory or consistent methodology of research” (p. 4), several steps in the action research process have been usefully identified by action researchers. For example, Nunan (1993) provided a helpful overview of the process involved in conducting action research. In all empirical research on second language classrooms—whether instructive, descriptive, or action research—the investigators share similar goals. These include wanting a better understanding of how second languages are learned and taught, together with a commitment to improving the conditions, efficiency, and ease of learning.

Theory and Background to Action Research Teachers can bring a wealth of background knowledge and experience to the research process, offering a unique perspective on the dynamics of second language learning and teaching. Also, teachers may believe that others’ research findings are not sufficiently related or applicable to their own unique teaching situations .

As Johnson (1992) noted, when discussing research initiated and carried out by teachers, “if what is missing from the research on classroom language learning is the voices of teachers themselves, then the movement provides ways for teachers’ voices to be heard and valued” (p. 216). Action research is one form of teacher-initiated research. Crookes (1993) provided a useful discussion of the origin of the term, suggesting that “in action research it is accepted that research questions should emerge from a teacher’s own immediate concerns and problems”.

In contrast to most second language classroom research that is carried out by parties outside the classroom, for the purposes of theory construction and testing, action research is typically conducted by practitioners in order to address an immediate classroom problem or need(Allwright & Bailey, 1991). Like most research, action research usually stems from a question or problem, involves gathering data, and is followed by analysis and interpretation of those data and possibly a solution to the research problem. This can be followed by communication of the findings to others and sometimes by a change or modification to current practice.

Action Research in Practice: Not all action researchers harmonize on a process for doing action research, any more than they agree on the nature and content, or even the appropriate name for such research, which is sometimes referred to as “collaborative research” or “practitioner research” or “teacher research.” For example, McDonough and McDonough (1997), with reference to “researcher-generated” and “teacher-initiated” research, discussed the probable strain in-built in referring to teaching as “action” and research as “understanding’. ‘’Allwright and Bailey (1991) also referred to the dynamic nature of the action research framework, suggesting that all research centered on the classroom can be viewed under the unifying characteristic of attempting to understand what goes on in the classroom setting.’’

Experts recognize problems or concerns within their own classrooms. For example, a practitioner may be concerned that the students seem to have particular problems with writing an essay. Then, he may cautiously notice the students during writing classes, scrutinize their written products, and note where problems seem to arise. In this data- gathering phase, the practitioner may decide to create a database with information gathered from multiple sources.

Triangulation—or the process of obtaining data from more than one source—is an important factor in many types of researches, including action research. For our second language writing example, the expert may select to add-on the information collected from classroom observations and explores the students’ written work with discussions with colleagues, questionnaires or diary entries nominating the students’ perspectives, verbal protocols or think-aloud produced by the students while writing, and/or the administration of writing tests (e.g., timed essays) in order to gather more information on the students’ strengths and weaknesses.

Based on the information obtained in the data, or sometimes before the data are collected, the practitioner may form assumptions or hypotheses. For example, if some of the students seem to have trouble finding and using low-frequency vocabulary words that are required to discuss the topic of the essay, the instructor may then invent and implement some form of interference or treatment to tackle that problem. This could constitute a range of techniques, including a new method of teaching vocabulary, or a new technique for raising students’ awareness of their own problems and providing them with resources to solve them. Finally, the instructor might evaluate the effects of this practice. This could be done, for example, through another round of data gathering, in which the instructor uses such techniques as observations, questionnaires, verbal protocols, or tests, or simply asks the students for their perspectives. These approaches might help the instructor to determine whether or not the students have benefited from the treatment and also to determine the learners’ own views about the change in instructional practice, including if and how they feel they have benefited. If the outcome on essay writing is positive, the practitioner may disseminate the results of the process at this point, or return to the stage of reflection. In spreading results, it is important to remember that much action research cannot be generalized. It is situated, or context dependent. In cases in which instructors’ treatments, changes in practice, or actions have not been effective, they can consider what other measures could be taken to improve the students’ writing. If the changes have been effective, they can consider what else could be done to further support their writing efforts.

ACTION RESEARCH AT A GLANCE:

Action research is a repeated process.
Action research is often motivated by teachers’ curiosity and their wish to understand their classrooms.
Action research is a lawful rejection of quantitative paradigms.
If action research is intended to inform a wide research community, it will need to meet the basic standards for publication and presentation.
Conducted in the complex, dynamic context of the classroom, action research can be “difficult, messy, problematic, and, in some cases, inconclusive”
Nevertheless, action research can provide valuable insights both to individual teachers and to the field of second language learning.

POSTMETHOD

After many changes in language teaching methods, the death of method is coherent with the widely held view that we are now in a ‘post-method’ era. Post method calls for a substitute to method i.e. “the quest for a better method has been or should be abandoned in favor of the identification of practices or strategies of teaching designed to reflect local needs and experiences”( Savignon, 2007, p. 207) while emphasizing the undisputable role of language teachers. The post method addresses a kind of ideology prestigious to language researchers and educators.

In reality, a large number of experts are in favor of placing language teachers at the top of hierarchy of education for determining their way of teaching and devising their own methods; however, a number of variables need to be taken into account in this regard. To begin with, it is essential to equip language teachers with a multifaceted knowledge of education including linguistic, cultural, societal, psychological and strategic aspects before endowing the autonomy for devising important methods and techniques or the power to make big decisions.

Stern declared that ‘several developments indicate a shift in language pedagogy away from the single method concept as the main approach to language teaching’ (1983, p. 477). One such development was the failure, on the part of researchers, to find any significant advantage in one method over another. As Richards (1990) noted, ‘studies of the effectiveness of specific methods have had a hard time demonstrating that the method itself, rather than other factors, such as the teacher’s enthusiasm, or the novelty of the new method, was the crucial variable’.

After so-called death of the method concept in 1991, the post method term came to be used widely in the discourse of language teaching researchers and practitioners. Kumaravadivelu (1994) first interrogated the pursuit for the best method saying that method concept limited teachers and learners and subsequently prevented them from accomplishing their full capability. In addition, he argued that ‘methods abandoned learners and teachers’ creativity through prescribing a set of techniques to be used by teachers without full understanding on the part of its users.’

Post method is a response to the concept of method and aims to put an end to the search for the best method. Kumaravadivelu (2006) asserts “the post method condition is a sustainable state of affairs that compels us to fundamentally restructure our view of language teaching and teacher education” (p. 170). He continues to suggest that the assumed responsibility of post method is to educate teachers to be theorizers of their practice. These teachers would be prepared for this task by empowering their skills, knowledge and autonomy.

Kumaravadivelu (2006) reckons three doctrines as the components of post method pedagogy namely particularity, practicality, and possibility.

Particularity: It is the backbone of post method pedagogy maintaining that the role of context or situation is fundamental to meaningful pedagogy. It focuses on “local exigencies and lived experiences” (p. 171). Kumaravadivelu (2006) believes that we “must be sensitive to a particular group of teachers teaching a particular group of learners pursuing a particular set of goals within a particular institutional context embedded in a particular socio-cultural milieu” (p. 171). In this sense, context plays a crucial role in post method pedagogy.

Practicality: Practicality refers to the connection between theory and practice. It addresses the gap between professional theories of the researchers and personal theories of the practitioners. For example, action research has been proposed as one of the techniques, which can contribute to bridging the gap between these two extremes.

Possibility: Possibility refers to the fact how and to what extent the language we speak or learn affects our surroundings and our personalities. ‘This has been a concern of sociopolitical aspect of ELT in post method era. In addition, the view that language shapes the power relationships and social structures of a society falls within this area (Gholami et al., 2012).’

Drawbacks of post method

A number of drawbacks can be accredited to the view of post method. In method era, there were a number of main objectives or outcomes that played the role of yardsticks for the success of teachers’ practices. In contrast, post method does not determine final objectives and considers education as a process, which is shaped by teachers and learners. In this sense, education isrelative to a high degree making it difficult to judge success or failure of an educational program.
As Akbari (2008) asserts “now that the method is gone, the question is how teachers are going to develop the competence demanded of them in dealing with pedagogical and social responsibilities assigned to them” (p. 642).
Due to problems in cultural, social, educational and political structure that are essential for implementing this trend this view has not been implemented even in universities.
Without preparing the necessary background, any attempts to renew teaching and learning process might be futile and would lead to inefficiency on the part of researchers and practitioners.
Based on post method pedagogy, teachers should act upon their understanding and knowing (in Kumaravadevilu’s terms).
Teachers have to tackle their teaching to the rules and standards. This is in sharp contrast with the roles, which teachers should have, in a post method condition.
It cannot be attained without rearranging ideals and standards so that teachers can claim their modern roles as active decision makers and material developers.
Including postmodernism ideas in the educational system might appear a difficult task.
Which factors determine the applicability or practicality of a teacher is still an unanswered question.
Teachers’ roles should be defined and operationalized in order to put the practitioners on track.

Post method should be viewed as a kind of departure from fixed and deterministic ideas regarding teaching to a more fluid and flexible position in view of current sociocultural changes in the world. It is worth noting that post method pedagogy should move hand in hand with other trends such as postmodernism, globalization and critical thinking modules as they pave the way for its implementation in one way or another. It may be more efficient to look at the post method as a direction, which we should move toward and any extreme positions in its acceptance or rejection should be avoided. In case this alliance is considered, one can hope that changes shape the innovations in the process of education. Pennycook (1989) argued that methods are never ‘disinterested’, but serve the dominant power structures in society, leading to ‘a de-skilling of the role of teachers, and greater institutional control over classroom practice’ (p. 610). ‘Methods, however the term is defined, are not dead. Teachers seem to be aware of both the usefulness of methods and the need to go beyond them.’

SUMMING UP: As a consequence, we do not have a clear picture of what is going on in the real context of language teaching and learning. It is, therefore, perceptive for researchers to continue progressing to this direction. Obviously, these studies would contribute to our understanding of post method and how it has influenced the field of language teaching.

you can view video on Research Methods II

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