26 Developing Teaching Materials

Dr. Sandhya Tiwari

Learning outcomes:

In this module the students will be exposed to the nuances of developing teaching materials useful for English language teaching, especially in India. They will learn about the methodical approach to creating materials as part of English language teacher education. This module will discuss the following components:

1. The role of materials in the learning activity of language classrooms with various perspectives on materials development.
2. Factors influencing the effectiveness of syllabi and materials
3. Ways to choose, adapt and assess materials for enhancing and testing the LSRW Skills.
4. Frequently used terms in Teaching Materials development.
5. Different kinds of materials and their functions.

Introduction

The emergence of technological aids have altered the educational realms; and, the field of ELT is not an exception to this phenomenon. In other words, the language teaching has undergone drastic transformation. This is because of the availability of e-resources which are accessed not only by the teachers but also by the students. In the light of this fact finding an answer to the question as to what role do materials in English language teaching assume will be very challenging; but that answer will introduce the material developers, teachers and course leaners to further lead questions.

In order to explore and dwell deeper, it is beneficial to grasp the concepts and connects revolving the course design and materials. Malcolm Skilbeck, an education consultant, was formerly vice chancellor of Deakin University and professor of Curriculum Studies at the University of London, Institute of Education. Professor Malcolm Skilbeck is also an Educational Consultant of Australia, former Deputy-Director of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). His works and articles resonate the importance of course material at par with course credibility itself. Thus the challenge with regard to striking a decent chord between course and course materials is confronted across the continents by the ELT practitioners and teachers. The challenge is shared equally by the leaners as well.

Material Development

Material development is both a field of study and a practical undertaking. As a field it study, it involves with the principles and procedures of design, implementation and evaluation of language teaching materials. (Tomilson 2001: 66) As practical undertaking material development refers to anything apllied or used or adopted to facilitate the teaching – learning process.

The mere thought of material brings to the mind the expression ‘Syllabus’. The word syllabus is commonly used from Grade I onwards. Anyone will be comfortable to give their own meaning and definition for the word ‘syllabus’, owing to the familiarity of the word. General responses to the question ‘What is syllabus?’ are as follows:

Syllabus is:

• A list of lessons to be taught
• A list of topics to be discussed
• A statement of what is to be taught in the classroom
• A set of guidelines for the teacher and the learner
• The areas to be tested: sample questions
• Input material/s

A more methodical understanding of syllabus highlights the broader and fuller, an all- composite perspective of syllabus. Brumfit (1984) summarized them in the following six points :

1. A syllabus is the specification of the work of a particular group or class.
2. It specifies the entry level behavior and the terminal behavior of the learners. It also specifies the time in which this has to be achieved.
3. It specifies the order in which the material has to be taught.
4. It can only specify what is taught, but it cannot organize what is learnt.
5. It is negotiable and adjustable.
6. It is a public document and an expression of accountability.

The materials are like the core, and generally the entire teaching – learning process revolves around them. The course material decides the plan of action, process and the product. In this  way the syllabus can ideally be considered as plan of action, while the materials used in the classroom represent the learning process and the outcome is the testing and evaluation material.

Thus we have noticed it is important to know what to teach, but what is more important is to understand how to teach.

Establishing goals and objectives

In developing the teaching materials the clear understanding of aims and objectives works like a RADAR. It lets the content developers to stick to the track. In developing the appropriate materials the clear understanding of aims and objectives of the course is very significant. Aims are the goals of a course of instruction. They are general purposes of the instruction of that specific course. Objectives are broader in scope. They are descriptions of what is to be achieved in a course. The specific module/course might be one of the series to be taught.

Let us look at the following example:

• Aim: To develop the reading comprehension skills of the learners
• Objective: After completing the course/term, the learners should be able to read an advanced level passage of 500 words in five minutes and s/he should be able to answer reasonably well i.e. a minimum of 80% questions based on the passage,

In some textbooks/course material the aims and objectives of the course are not included. Some others may appear vague to the teacher, for dearth of instruction guidance. In contrast, there is no syllabus/course material or textbook without the list of contents/topics to be covered. It is a misconception for many that a list of topics or contents is the syllabus. This is a very narrow understanding about the meaning and definition of syllabus.

What is the role of teaching materials?

Material should facilitate learners’ ability to study and self-investigate. This can be achieved if the material or course-ware helps the learners’ to achieve this by facilitating grasp of the topic and by engaging in learner-centered discovery activities and tasks. Teaching materials are of many kinds: textbooks, audio and video cassettes, handouts, charts, teaching aids of various kinds which can all be used for different purposes by the teacher. Generally, most teaching situations depend on the textbook.

Content is the medium which translates the objectives into learning outcomes. In other words the content reflects the objectives of the course. For instance, if the aim of the course is to develop reading comprehension skills of the learners, the material will include abundant reading material to help impart comprehension ability. The reading material will be orchestrated to the learners’ present level of competence and should revolve round the themes that hold the interest and motivate the target learners’ group. In the same way, if the aim is to help the learner use the language as a second language in everyday situations, the content should include the situations and the language necessary for initiation, negotiation etc.

Teachers cannot be effective in the classroom without teaching materials. The teaching materials are to be made available with the students as well. Many disciplinary problems will arise in case the learners are not bound by the “book” to follow in the classroom.

Closely related to the roles of teachers and learners is the role of textbook materials. Any textbook is based on assumptions about learning, and the design of its activities implies certain roles for teachers and learners and assumes certain dispositions towards learning styles. In the early 1980s Allwright (1981) and O’Neill (1982) debated the role of learning materials in articles entitled respectively ‘what do you want teaching materials for?’ and ‘why use textbooks?’

Even the most enthusiastic and conscientious teacher rarely has time to produce whole courses or a substantial amount of personally created materials. It is therefore important that the criteria is established for choosing and designing the material as per the course content and syllabus. It is therefore important that teachers establish criteria for designing the appropriate materials as per the scope of the syllabus. Only through this process can teachers benefit from the syllabus and curriculum and supplement them with additional materials in the form of extra help.

What is a good textbook?

A good textbook carries with it inbuilt mechanism of embedded learning. It should possess structural scaffolding that ascertains desirable outcomes even in situations where the teachers are inexperienced. And a good textbook is that where a learner with a little extra effort can prepare if s/he has missed a lesson or a component with minimal or no help from the teacher. Thus, good materials are the base of opportunities for learning.

A good course-book/material gives guidelines to both – teacher and taught. While developing the material for any course the drastic change in the role of teacher and learner should not be ignored.

Various Materials and their functions

Teachers, Learners and Materials: Nexus

The materials are the tools which will be useful for both teachers and learners. Thus, the role of materials is that of an instrument serving the dual purpose. As with any tool or instrument, the effective utilization depends on the user and the tool itself. For this reason, while developing materials immense care should be taken to avoid all sorts of ambiguity. Utmost precision should be taken because that will be the sample which consciously or unconsciously gets absorbed by the users/learners. In order to get the optimum advantage of the materials used, it is essential to know how to adapt, enrich and interpret.

It is important to note the teaching material should include specific tasks for conducting in classroom. In selecting the materials for tasks, keep in mind:

• Relevance
• Authenticity
• Focus on process
• Potentiality for review and assessment
• Feasibility
• Learners’ proficiency

The Paradigm Tilt

The effects in recent changes in English language teaching in India exemplify the fact that ELT is going through the advanced years of communicative era and early years of digital learning, therefore the debate between “acquisition versus learning”, “simplification versus authenticity”, “structures versus functions”, “fluency versus accuracy” gained momentum.

The metamorphosis in the role of a teacher from the giver of knowledge (grammar – translation), and the model speaker (audio – lingual) to that of a facilitator (communicative language teaching). The teacher is now discouraged from doing anything that the learners can do for themselves.

The role of learners has also undergone tremendous change and has taken on a different dimension. In the grammar – translation method the learners were expected to acquire knowledge about the language and its literature. They were, more or less, expected to imitate the native speakers’ style. Cognitive –code practices expected the learner to use the language and in the process, internalize the language. It can be understood that the learners’ role has emerged from passive to active. The learners are no longer the receivers of knowledge but the discoverers of knowledge.

In the Western education system the decline of the textbook is like a movement and that has spread to other countries. The tendency of monolithic textbook diminished and it paved way to less rigid forms of instructional materials. These range from various types of supplementary materials to inventories of ideas for teachers, and to modular materials.

To quote “Externally imposed syllabus, textbooks and examinations all define educational values and set certain standards which are important from the standpoint of the individual as well as for national and social purposes: however, they make the spontaneity, flexibility and diversity which are an equally important part of education much more difficult to achieve.”- Malcolm Skilbeck.

Thus the journey of materials from the monolith textbook to the module is a fascinating attempt to reconcile the need for some kind of backbone to a course with the individual and changing needs (wherever necessary) of learners.

The term module is defined in the dictionary as: “an educational unit which covers a single subject or topic” (Webster, 1988). That is, the module is a self-contained unit, which has specific outcomes and which promotes an awareness of what has been learnt by the learner, thus contributing to a sense of achievement in learning and to learner training.

Graded Materials

In any teaching material one can apparently notice the increase in difficulty level. This difficulty can be in terms of language (expression) or content. It could also be seen in textbooks prescribed, till the recent past decade, where the materials of the initial years/phase of instruction are simpler and easy than those prescribed for higher classes. It was in 1940s that the principles of gradation began to be rigidly and systematically applied to basic or beginner’s level material and course design.

Richard’s conceived of the language – teaching method as an arrangement of graded sentence – situation units forming an organic sequence in which each step supported and was supported by others. (Richards, 1955)

A sentence as unit is defined as the one in which the meaning is conveyed clearly by the situation in what it is used. The structures are taught by varying its elements along with the corresponding elements of the context/situation.

Gradation of materials is good as it provides the natural evolution in learning process. It is a sound pedagogic practice which should be followed while preparing materials. What is taught generally is followed by in what order it is taught. Everything selected cannot be taught at once for apparent reasons. Something must come before, like pre-requisites and after something else.

Language is a system, an entity in itself. It is not just a collection of words as such. That is why a methodical approach in designing the materials is very important for the success of course instruction. Everything new cannot be presented that is why what is easiest or linked to the past exposure should be the starting point while designing the materials.

• Linguistic or language graded materials

Linguistically graded materials were are prepared based on the use of words/terms. This type of gradation is helpful as in the initial stages the learners will be in need to acquire basic level in LSRW. The words used should be equipping them with the required vocabulary to perform everyday functions by using English. Over a period of time they will develop the learning style and then they will be able to remember the difficult or rarely used words. The method of linguistic gradation is scientific.

• Content and cognition graded materials

Cognitive grading is another type of grading generally used in any course materials. Keeping in cognizance the average IQ of the learners, the materials should be prepared.

This type of grading is justified on purely psychological grounds. One of the important aspects for this gradation is the rationale that each new item should confirm what has been taught and should prepare the learners for what is to come.

“In good gradation, new material would strengthen the known material by the process of facilitation.” (Mackey, 1956:206).

Learners find it easy to grasp if materials is designed in a systematic and regular series. The irregular or unconnected ones lead to error of analogy. Responses associated with one stimulus will also be associated with similar ones; the greater the similarity, the stronger the association. Therefor gradual unfolding of the materials enhances the learning patterns. Psychologists and behavioural scientists have also emphasized that a greater number of items can be learnt in a specific time if they fit into established and interconnected patters.

Grouping and sequencing

Irrespective of the kind of gradation, principles on which they are based, all methods include in designing materials include:

• Some sort of grouping of their material, and
• An arrangement of these materials into some sort of sequence.

It is by comparing the grouping and sequences of materials that we can understand how one gradation varies from another.

Language being a system as well as a structure is made up of a system of sounds, words, phrases and meanings, which can be taught either separately or together. Each of these sounds, words, phrases and meanings can be fitted into structures, which in turn can be arranged in different kinds of sequences.

Simplified and adapted materials

Let us take the example of grading principles in developing materials. It is important to note that there was a movement in materials in the 1960s, when teachers and ELT exponents felt the need for adaption; that is, they wanted to change the prescribed textbooks or materials to make them more customized as per the learners’ level of reception and specific teaching needs.

“Adaptation is often required in order to increase motivation for learning, by making the language more real, the situations more relevant, the illustrations (visual or printed) more vivid and interesting.” (Madsen and Bowen, 1978:viii)

The original texts are often rewritten keeping the needs, purpose and the age-level of the readers. West (1964) describes the criteria of a successful adaptation as follows:

• Stage I: Introduction to reading for pleasure
• Stage II: Reading for enjoyment
• Stage III: Reading with foretaste
• Stage IV: Leading to read un-adapted

These four stages have specified word levels and also criteria for their selection.

Stage I: Vocabulary 480-750 headwords.

Criterion: Can the learner read this material without too much difficulty? Is it suitable to the learner’s age?

Stage II: Vocabulary 1000 to 1500 or 1800 head words.

Criterion: Is the book enjoyable? Can the teacher himself enjoy it in this adapted form?

Stage III: Vocabulary 1800 to 2300 head words.

Criterion: Does the book, without being too difficult convey some flavor of the original? Is it an effective appetizer?

Stage IV: Lead into un-adapted books. Vocabulary: 2000 to 2500 words for the explanatory passages.

Criterion: Does the book present the original author? Does it present the original in an assimilable and enjoyable form?

In the simplified texts, one should maintain adequate redundancy, reduce clause length and embedding, and deal with lexical difficulties such as abstractions, figurative language and low

frequency words. Redundancy is usually achieved by maintaining nouns that might otherwise be replaced with pronouns of various types.

Here we can understand in developing the materials the main concern should be to provide opportunities to the students to overcome the difficulty of vocabulary.

Developing Materials for Target Group or Target Outcome

The materials development in language teaching research gained momentum and as a result there is significant increase in the quality and quality of language learning materials. These materials are delivered not only in conventional print form but also through new technologies.

It is important to keep in mind the target group of the material to be developed. Learners too bring to learning their own beliefs, goals and attitudes which influence hoe they learn. Understanding the learners’ knowledge and rationale will facilitate the success of material developed.

It goes without saying that learning is the goal of teaching, but learning is not the mirror image of teaching. Thus drawing up an inventory to understand the target group is important. To simplify this job, one can prepare a questionnaire, which can be circulated well in advance to have sufficient time to incorporate the major aspects while developing materials.

For example if the target group for the material is a less motivated group then the thrust in developing the materials should be on something inspirational and motivational.

Conclusion

The task of developing teaching material is multi-dimensional. This module began with a humble note on understanding the basics in materials to deeper levels aspects of their development. The thrust was in reiterating the significance of materials for the successful realization of course outcomes. In order to achieve the desired success in developing materials, clarity of aims and objectives is important. Once this clarity comes, as explained, the thorough target group analysis should be taken up. If the course is pre-determined, then the adaptation or simplification strategy can be applied. The teacher should demonstrate sensitivity to learners’ need and expectations in the various stages of material development and use.

Reference

• Clarke, D.F. 1989. Communication Theory and its influence on Materials Production.
• Das, B.K. and B.N. Koul. 1975. “The Content of language teaching”. In Methods of Teaching English. Hyderabad: EFLU
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• Nunan, D. 1988. Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• White, V. Ronald. 1980. The ELT Currilculum: Design Innovation and Management.Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
• Wilkins, D. 1976. Notional Syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Allwright, R.L. 1981. ‘What do we want teaching materials for?’ ELT Journal 36/1: 5- 18.
• Brumfit, C.J. (ed.) 1984. General English syllabus design. ELT Documents 118. Oxford: Pergamon.
• Mackey, W.F. 1965. Language Teaching Analysis. London: Longman.
• Madsen, H.S. and J.D.Bowen 1978. Adaptation in language teaching. Rowley: Newbury House.
• Miller,G.A. 1951. Language and Communication. New York: Mc Graw-Hill.
• O’Neill.R. 1982. ‘Why use textbooks?’ ELT Journal 36/2: 104-11.
• Richards, J.A. 1955. Speculative Instruments. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
• Skilbeck, M. 1984. School-based Curriculum Development. London: Harper & Row.
• Tomilso, B. 2001. “Materials development”. In R.Carter and D.Nunan. (eds.) The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Others Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Webster, A. Merriam. 1988. Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Massachusetts: Merriam – Webster INC.
• West, M. 1964. “Criteria in the Selection of Simplified reading books”. ELT XVIII/4: 146-153.