19 Jnanesvara and Indian Poetics

Dr. Ritika Batabyal

Introduction

In this module we will discuss the life and times of Jnanesvara and will also try to understand the philosophy and teachings of Jnanesvara as it emanates from his works. Jnanesvara is also known as Jnanadeva and he was one of the important saints, poets and philosophers of Maharashtra. He is considered to be the father of the Varkari movement in the tradition of the Bhagavat Dharma in Maharashtra and was succeeded by Namadeva and Ekanatha. In him one finds a rare combination of poetry, philosophy and religious vision. The chief works of Jnanesvara include Jnanesvari, Amritanubhava, Changadeva-Pasashthi, Haripatha, Namana and his Abhangas or religious lyrics. Jnanesvari is his most famous commentary on the Bhagavad Gita and is also known by the name Bhavartha Dipika. The Abhangas record primarily the serious outpourings of his devotional heart and give a glimpse of his moral teachings and yogic experiences. The Amritanubhava has a unique position as it sets forth his philosophical vision prominently.

Jnanesvara’s contribution to Indian Philosophy is his theory of ‘Chidvilas’ or the play of the Pure Intelligent Atman. He critiques Sankara’s idea of ‘ignorance’ although he stands on the same Advaitic ground and this enables him to transform the conceptions of God, the individual self and the world. For Jnanesvara God is not the phenomenal appearance of the Absolute rather He is the very Absolute and contains within Himself both the principle and the explanation of plurality. The world is not created by ‘maya’. According to Jnanesvara it is the expression of infinite Divine Love and Joy. The power of God’s love is responsible for the appearance of the world. Love of God takes the centrestage of which his power and wisdom are aspects. Thus Jnanesvara’s philosophical vision leads the individual to the path of loving devotion and selfless activism. For Jnanesvara Love is not the quality of God rather it is god Himself, out of which emanates all creation and flows spontaneously. This Infinite Love is the deepest truth of the universe and hence without it nothing can be created. Jnanesvara urges that in order to realise and feel this Infinite Love ‘Akrittrim Bhakti’ or natural devotion is required. This vision of his Infinite Love made him proclaim ‘The Universe is my home and I shall make all the worlds happy’.

Life and Time of Jnanesvara

Jnanesvara was born in 1275AD and died in 1296 AD. He had a very short life span of just about twenty one years. Jnanesvari was written in 1290 AD. Jnanesvara lived during the reign of King Ramadevarava of the Yadava dynasty who was a great patron of learning and was also a devotee of the God of Pandharpur. In fact the Yadava period was a flourishing period for Maharashtra. Jnanesvara was the first to have written philosophical works in Marathi. Jnanesvara’s spiritual lineage can be traced to two sources: the Nath cult and the Varkari or the Bhakti cult of Pandharpur. Jnanesvara’s forefathers were all disciples of the Nath cult and his brother Nivrittinath was the initiator of Jnanesvara. Prior to Jnanesvara this spiritual wealth was restricted to the disciple and his guru but Jnanesvara was interested in disseminating the knowledge among all. The Bhakti cult of Pandharpur was also of great importance and Jnanesvara’s contact with Namadeva influenced in shaping his philosophy which became the foundation pillars of the Bhakti cult in Maharashtra. Jnanesvara and his brothers had to suffer great humiliation and were also excommunicated by the orthodox Brahmins of Alandi. The reason was primarily due to the fact that, Jnanesvara’s father, Vithalpant who had become a sanyasi renouncing all worldly comforts was asked by his spiritual teacher to lead a life of a householder. The entire family was harassed and Vithalpant with his children and wife, Rukmini, lived outside the town. It is recorded that both Jnanesvara’s father and mother ended their lives by drowning in the holy river and the children were left under the supervision of their elder brother Nivrittinath.

After becoming a devotee of Vithal and a great apostle of the Varkari cult Jnanesvara along with Namadeva visited the holy cities in Northern India. They retruned to Pandharpur and Jnanesvara expressed his desire to enter Samadhi. In 1296 AD Jnanesvara entered Samadhi and ended his life. We have thus discussed Jnanesvara’s life and his times in this part of the module.

Major Works

In this module we will discuss the major works of Jnanesvara and a brief outline of each of the work will be given.

Jnanesvari

It is considered to be the magnum opus coming from the mouth of Jnanesvara. This celebrated Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita is also known by the names of Jnanadevi and Bhavartha-Dipika. The striking feature of the work is the use of Marathi language instead of Sanskrit because he desired to reach the common public devoid of any knowledge of Sanskrit. The work consists of about nine thousand ovis. It explains the meaning and significance of the Sanskrit text with the help of beautiful poetic language. A frequent imagery used in the Jnanesvari is of a loving and protective mother. God has been represented as a mother-bird protecting her young ones. The philosophical message is that of the spirit of loving devotion or Bhakti. Here Jnanesvara explains the theory of ‘Chidvilas’. According to which the universe is the expression of the Absolute Reality. Santa Rasa permeates the entire work. Describing the characteristics of a true devotee Jnanesvara says the former is united with god but he also serves Him. So he reinstates a union of the Bhakta with the godhead but there is also a separation from Him. This is the secret of Bhaktiyoga as explained in the work. He explains that the world is related to God in the same way as waves are related to the sea and limbs are linked with the body. He prescribes a life of detachment as opposed to enjoyment. But his philosophy never advocated desertion of life; rather it is one of life affirmation.

Amritanubhava

It is considered to be the greatest philosophical work written in Marathi language. The unique feature of the work is that Jnanesvara did not rely upon the Upanishadic or Vedic teachings in writing this work. Rather it is his own religious experiences and original philosophical insights that led to its writing. He expostulates his theory of ‘Sphurtivada’ with logical acumen and great poetic mastery. A major part of the book deals with refuting the theory of ignorance or ‘Ajnanavada’. It reveals the secret of ‘Akrittrim’ Bhakti or natural devotion and is an important philosophical basis of Bhakti in Maharashtra. It describes the entire universe as a sport of the Absolute. It never tries to hide Reality but manifests It always.

Changadeva-Pasashthi

The work contains sixty five verses addressed to Changadeva, a Hathayogi. Changadeva realising the futility of his yogic powers, once he came in contact with Jnanesvara, gave up his Hathayoga and became his disciple. This work gives a clear exposition of the philosophy of Jnanesvara.

Haripatha

The work consists of twenty eight Abhangas. Here Jnanesvara explains the importance of the name of the Lord. He states that the utterance of the name of the Lord is the only way to become one with Him. All the other rituals like sacrifices and yogic performances are of no use since the devotee in reality is sustained only by the name of the Lord. The word Haripatha means remembering the name of the Lord Hari with complete devotion and affection. This work is a natural outcome of the devotion described in the Amritanubhava.

Namana

It contains one hundred and eight stanza composed in the ovi metre. The work is a hymn in praise of the Lord of the universe. Jnanesvara here describes the importance of the prayer which he considers to be the ‘supreme end’ in itself.

Abhangas

There are about nine hundred abhangas ascribed to Jnanesvara. These are mainly religious lyrics and their subject matter differ ranging from the description of the lovely form of Vithal, the sweetness of His name to criticisms of religious superstitions, the futility of asceticism and the supremacy of devotion. The Abhangas describe the universe as nothing but His manifestation. In one of his Abhangas Jnanesvara describes the whole universe as a ‘Lingam’ and describes it in a sublime way. His main idea is that god pervades the entire universe but transcends it as well. The ‘Virahini’ Abhangas describe the infinite love of the Lord and the finite individual who has tasted it can never remain satisfied. This highest experience of Divine love of the devotee is the theme of the ‘Virahini’ Abhangas. Here the Lord of the universe is depicted as the lover and the woman devotee is the beloved. With this we end our brief outline of the major works of Jnanesvara in this module.

Philosophy of Jnanesvara

In this module we will try to discuss and understand the teachings and philosophy of Jnanesvara as it emanates from his various works.

Jnanesvara and the Nature of the World

Jnaesvara is a spiritual monist who considers Ultimate Reality as One and spiritual. Spirit is the pure consciousness. Sankara and Jnanesvara’s ideas of the triad – knowledge, knower and known differ greatly. According to him this triad is the origin of the universe and so their nature becomes important for philosophy. According to Sankara the subjective and objective relation is illusory due to ‘Avidya’. The world is an appearance but it has a reality for practical purpose (‘Vyavaharik Satya’). Jnanesvara admits the reality of the Brahman but he rejects the falsity of the world. For him it is always the natural expression of Reality and is not ‘Avidya’. He refutes the theory of ‘Ajnana’ and ‘Mayavada’ in both the Amritanubhava and Changadeva-Pasashthi.

In Indian philosophy the concept of ‘maya’ is of utmost importance. The Upanishadic sages and their followers like Sankara had propounded the One Absolute. The relation of this Absolute to appearances is explained through the theory of ‘maya’. In the Brihadaranyakopanishad Brahman is considered to be the One without a second. Thus the Brahman is the One Reality while all the appearances are false.

Jnanesvara counters saying that knowledge and ignorance are relative terms. Ultimate Reality is pure knowledge. Thus knowledge and ignorance are mere words without corresponding existence. He maintains that if the existence of ignorance is taken for granted before the rise of knowledge that existence of ignorance does not become the object of hearing. The existence of ignorance is illusory like the light of a glow-worm. Ignorance might be there but in reality there is no ignorance due to the final rise of knowledge. So ignorance or ‘Ajnana’ is not possible because it can neither co-exist with knowledge nor can it exist independently.

According to him ignorance can never dwell in the ‘Atman’ in its pure state. There might have been ignorance in the beginning but the birth of knowledge puts an end to it. Thus for Jnanesvara the manifestation of the universe is not due to ‘Ajnana’ but is the very expression of pure intelligence. The world for him is never the outcome of ‘Avidya’ but is the outcome of ‘Chidvilas’ or the Play of the Absolute.

World as the Expression of Divine Love and Joy

Jnanesvara, describing the ‘Atman’, says that the latter is beyond existence and non-existence. In any state the omniscience of the ‘Atman’ is not affected. The Vedas, the Sun even the Mind cannot apprehend or imagine Him. Jnanesvara agrees with Yajnyavalkya when he says that self consciousness is the Ultimate fact of experience. The Ultimate Reality or ‘Atman’ is self consciousness (‘svasamvedya’) and His unity is not lost even if He comes to pervade the entire universe. The perfection of the ‘Atman’ is such that it swallows the incomprehensibility as well as its oneness. The ‘Atman’, intoxicated with the spectacle of His creation, does not wish to see the same scenes again and again. Every moment He wears new apparels and expands Himself and shines forth as the world. The ‘Atman’ plays with himself by becoming the process of the universe. There are no differences when the ‘Atman’ presents Himself as the saint of the world or as the world that He sees because it is nothing but the ‘Atman’ Himself in every respect. Jnanesvara expounds that there is no parallel to the sport of the ‘Atman’. The process of the universe is nothing but the expression of the Atman’s love for Himself. The whole universe therefore cannot be a glorious deception of ‘Avidya’ rather it is the expression of the Supreme Love.

Conception of the Finite Self or Jiva

Jnanesvara’s concept of the ‘Jiva’ is again different from those of other Indian philosophers. The nature of the finite self is not a mere appearance that ultimately dissolves into the Absolute as the Advaitins like Sankara considers it to be. Jnanesvara has already described the Absolute as splitting itself into subject and object in order to experience Itself. The subjective aspect diversifies into innumerable finite selves through which the Reality enjoys. Thus Jnanesvara says that sound becomes the ear in order to hear itself, fragrance became the nose to smell itself and so on. Hence the enjoyer and the enjoyed are merged in One Absolute. According to Jnanesvara this merging does not pronounce extinction. It indicates that amidst this diversity the Unity is not broken. This implies that the finite self actually expresses the innate nature of the Ultimate Reality to manifest Itself through duality. Thus the relation between the finite self and the Absolute is not imaginary as Sankara believes, neither it is physical according to the vision of Ramanuja. Again it is not of sole dependence as Madhava believes nor fragmentary as Nimbark explains. For Jnanesvara this relation is more intimate and very natural. The existence of the finite self does not mean it is a degradation of Reality rather it subtly explicates that the Reality determines Itself in order to realise Itself in various forms. Jnanesvara tries to reveal that the realisation of God means the understanding of how God realises Himself through one’s being and this is the secret of natural devotion.

Bhakti

The idea of Bhakti forms one of the central ideas of Indian Philosophy. It has played an important role in expounding both the religious and philosophical thought in India. It has also dominated the various schools of Indian Philosophy and as such has been understood and explained in different ways by various thinkers. In the most common parlance Bhakti has been understood as whole-hearted devotion to God. This feeling of devotion is not objective but it is subjective. It has a long journey of evolution from the Vedic times to the sutras of Bhakti-Mimansa. In the Vedic Age primarily in the different hymns to Varun and Indra the readers can get a glimpse of complete devotion to these celestial powers. This can be traced as the first germs of Bhakti as developed in later times. The word Bhakti occurs in the Svetasvetaropanishad for the first time. The doctrine of grace and self-surrender is stressed here and Brahman is described as of the nature of Bliss and the source of all human joys in the Taittiriya and Brihadaranyak Upanishads. The Bhagavad Gita explicitly foregrounds the doctrine of Bhakti. It is the path of love and devotion with which everyone can approach the Reality or the Supreme Being. Arjuna is even advised to set aside all other means of salvation and surrender himself to the Godhead with complete devotion. The Supreme Being resides in all beings and in all things and moves them so that he may be liberated from all sins by His Divine Grace. The Srimad Bhagavad underlines Bhakti as the supreme goal of life. In the Narada Bhakti-Sutras Bhakti has been defined as superior to action, knowledge and meditation. It is not a means to something else but it is an end in itself. Again the Bhakti-Mimansa Sutras explain Bhakti as a Rasa. It is a kind of ‘ulhas’ of the mind and is eternal. It is the highest form of Bliss.

Now if we turn to Jnanesvara we will see that his understanding of Bhakti as propounded in the Amritanubhava has an intrinsic or absolute value. According to him Bhakti is the very essence of Reality which is self-experiencing (‘svasamvedya’) and self-illuminating (‘svaprakasha’). Jnanesvara maintains that this self-experiencing is nothing but Love of God towards Himself and it forms the very core of Divinity. Both the animate and the inanimate world is Its manifestation. So Bhakti becomes not an act of devotion but it is the very nature of God. Ultimate Reality according to Jnanesvara is Pure consciousness, Love and Creative Energy. The very nature of love is to express itself and creation is that expression. This Love is a living spirit therefore it is self conscious and self realising. Jnanesvara explains that the finite self does not merely dwell in God or the Absolute as a separate self rather the existence of that self means the very manifestation of God whose primary essence is Love. The experience of this Love is the final fulfilment or the real aim of life. Bhakti, therefore, for Jnanesvara is the realisation of Divine Love and this realisation leads to the culmination of spiritual experience. According to Jnanesvara’s philosophy the plurality of the world is not just an illusory appearance and hence to be paid little heed to; rather it is the manifestation of the playfulness of the Absolute. Hence every object in this world is not a material for sensual enjoyment but is the expression of Divine Love. Bhakti for Jnanesvara has the highest value both from the human standpoint and from the point of the Absolute Reality. Thus Jnanesvara’s idea of the Absolute evokes a feeling of intimacy and Love.

The Difference between Jnanesvara and other Indian Thinker’s view of Bhakti

Sankara understands Bhakti as the meditation upon one’s Supreme Self. According to Ramanuja Bhakti is a continuous meditation accompanied by the practice of eight Yoga processes. Vallabha explains Pushtibhakti as the supreme one. It creates the desire of the attainment of God to the exclusion of every other thing. The fruit of this devotion gives the passport to the devotee to enter ‘Goloka’ where the latter can participate in the eternal sport of Krishna. All these thinkers consider Bhakti as the means to Mukti.

Jnanesvara differs in his idea of Bhakti. According to him Bhakti is not a means to Mukti rather he rejects the very idea of Mukti. In order to understand and realise Bhakti Jnanesvara never thinks that it requires one to renounce this world. Bhakti for him is to be realised in this very world. This is primarily because the eternal play of God is not going on in some other plane rather it is this very world which is the manifestation of God’s Eternal Love and Sport.

Indian Philosophy and Jnanesvara

The dominant tone of Indian Philosophy is idealistic which has its source in the Upanishads. The cardinal principle of the idealism is the spirituality of the Real. Yajnyavalkya was one of the important teachers of Idealistic Monism and later one Sankara accepted it and regarded the manifestations of the Pure Intelligence as illusion. Most of the thinkers advocated a renunciation of this world which is illusory. Janesvara has drawn importance of another aspect of the Absolute when he says that the Absolute is not mere knowledge and will but it is also love. Hence the Absolute is the Experience saturated with Divine Love. This idea of Jnanesvara deserves a special place in Indian thought. Also Jnanesvara explains that the world being a divine manifestation is not to be renounced. Rather every act needs to be performed in an attitude of prayer. According to Jnanesvara an ideal person is one whose heart is filled with Divine Love at the sight of any object of the world.

Jnanesvara’s Contribution

Jnanesvara applied the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita to the concrete situation of his time and stressed on the importance of the triple marga in the life of the individual. Jnanesvara was able to blend Karma marga, Jnana marga and Bhakti marga together into one Yoga and reflected how the synthesis is possible. Jnanesvara’s religion of love is again unique in its own way. He states that the ideal of this life is not Moksha but Bhakti or the realisation of that Divine Love which overflows everything. Our life is the medium through which Divine Love manifests Itself and experiences Itself. One can explicitly find Jnanesvara’s influence on Namadeva particularly the philosophy of ‘Chidvilas’. Ekanath and Tukaram imbibed the teachings of Jnanesvara. Jnanesvara was able to blend Bhakti, Karma and Jnana into an all embracing philosophy. One of the unique aspects of his philosophy was the fact that he did not refute the existence of this world and thus he had a positive outlook towards the objects of this world. This made him announce that God Himself takes delight in manifesting and realising Himself through the varied and innumerable forms of existence. Hence every form of existence becomes endowed at the same with the beauty of the Infinite. The Absolute is understood as an embodiment of Divine Love. Therefore the way to know Him is to love Him. We have in this module successfully discussed the teachings and philosophy of Jnanesvara and have also explained it in the larger background of Indian Philosophy.