16 Writing from West Asia in English

Mr. Ayan Ghosh

Introduction

This module talks about Western Asian literature and the position of it in the map of World Literature. Literatures across the West Asia will be briefly discussed here. A brief outline will be presented to conceptualise the literary area. This module mainly focuses on the modern trends of literature in this proposed area. Along with such issues, Indian reception of different West Asian literature also will be brought into discussion.

The concept of West Asia is mainly emerged from the 19th century to identify the Middle East excluding Egypt. West Asia is well known to the every nook and corner of the world for its oil resources, so different kinds of stereotypes are constructed about this region. Such dominating economic affair of West Asia with the rest of the world over shadowed its literature, culture, and heritage. It is needless to mention that such economic power also  leads to the political power to interfere in different international issues.

To promote Indo-West Asian relation for mutual benefits, some major Indian universities like Aligarh Muslim University, Jamia Millia Islamlia University are offering the courses in discipline. Discipline like West Asian studies has been introduced to receive literature, culture and to understand the political issues related with the countries of this geo- political region.

Brief introduction of Modern West Asian Literature:

The geographical locations of the West Asian countries may help us to imagine the map of literature produced in this area too. This region largely exists in the Arabian Peninsula, a land mass between the Red sea to the west, the Arabian Sea to the southeast, and the Persian Gulf to the east along with Anatolia, Iran, Armenian Highlands, Levant, Mesopotamia and South Caucasus etc. This region consists nineteen countries. Among those Arabic is the most spoken language (around 280 million speaker), after Arabic Persian is the second most spoken language in West Asian region (65 million speaker). Along with these speakers there is another Persian speaking population in Afghanistan and U.A.E. And the third most spoken language is Hebrew (3.8 million) in this region, and the population is now concentrated in Israel and the neighboring countries.

This region is polyphonic and complex with their cultural and political relations as well as the heritage and history. Therefore, no way it is intended to perceive West Asian literature as a monolithic literary structure. But this module is intended to represent the glimpses of English literature produced from another area of the World either in English translation or in English itself. We will try to talk about the literature of this region mainly based on the language and the country where that language is dominating.

Saudi Arabian writers participate as one of the largest contributors in whole West Asian literature. Fawaziya Abu Khalid is one of the most popular writers from this area. She is a poet, essayist, sociologist and professor. Her Literary credit remain on the publication of her first collection of poetry, Untill when They Abduct You will on your Wedding Night? (1974), her other major works include Secret Readings in the History of Arab Silence (1985) and Mirage Water (1995). Abdel Rahman Munif is also one of the major known writers of Saudi Arabian literature. His best known work is Cities of Salt Trilogy. Umaima Abdullah al-Khamis, another author, is mainly well known for her short story and children’s books and novels. The novel The Leafy Tree was enlisted for the 2010 Arabic booker prize.

In the 20th and 21st century, Turkey has introduced some eminent and influential writers, who are not only popular and well-read in West Asia but across the world for their different and unique world views. The literary themes of such literature moves from politics to fiction, romance to revolution. Nazim Hikmet is one of them, who is also widely received in different Indian languages. For example he is translated by Subhash Mukhopadhyay into Bangla. He was described in Turkey as ‘romantic communist ‘. His political ideology and strong belief towards the philosophy he actually practiced was reflected in his poetry. In the 1950, he was nominated for the Nobel peace prize, sharing the nomination with Pablo Picasso and Pablo Neruda. His celebrated works are ‘The Girl Child, That wall, Human Landscapes etc. Bilge Karasa was another notable Turkish Writer. He uses the different shades of human behavior and emotion in his writings. His novel Death in Troy was a path breaking novel, with this he discloses his repressed homosexuality in the backdrop of 1950s.

1975-1990, the time of bloodshed and civil war in Lebanon changed the inner world of its literature. The contemporary writers from Lebanon shares the significant chapters of their national history in their literary creation and this very particular ethos makes this literature significant in the map of World Literature. Khalil Gibran, is the giant figure of Lebanese literature and it is needless to say that he is well received across the world. Gibran as a novelist, philosopher, poet, and artist contributed remarkably in these areas. His prose- poem ‘The Prophet’ was translated almost into 40 languages. And this makes him third bestselling poet of all the time after Shakespeare and Lao-Tzu. Elias Khoury is another portrayal image of modern Lebanese literature. His famous work is White Masks, in which he displayed the war-torn image of Beirut.

In the modern literature of Jordan, we can observe another definition of modernity practiced by the Jordanian authors in their literature. This literature particularly deals with the contemporary issues and responses to the issues addressed by different literatures of the World. Elias Farkouh is an eminent short story writer and novelist in contemporary Jordanian literature. For the novel, The Land of purgatory, he was short listed for the International prize for Arabic fiction. Ibrahim Nasrallah is another significant literary figure of modern Jordanian literature. His novel, The time of White Horses was widely acknowledged by the readers. Among the women authors, Fadia Faqir is one of the significant figure among the Jordanian literary giants. Her first novel Nisanjit was well acclaimed by the critics.

Syria, one of the most conflict zones of the world and a place for imperialist’s interest is well received in different languages across the globe as people extend their solidarity towards the innocent victims of the country. Victimisation of Syria, everyday war, displacement of innocent people, search for shelter by the Syrians, Syrians being refugee across the Europe makes Syria a significant zone of literary attraction. Now, contemporary Syrian refugee literature is also a point in contemporary World Literature study. Though they have an age old literary tradition and heritage of Syria is well reflected in Syrian literature.

After surpassing the political hardships, the modern Syrian authors has been succeeded to reestablish its lost virtue of literature. Salim Barkat wrote a plethora of literary works in present Syria. He can write novels, short stories, poetries all along with same ease. He has been considered as the pioneer to introducing magic realism in Arabic literature. One of the most significant example of this kind is The Caves of Hydrahodahose. Hanna Mina is also credited for introducing the novelistic traditions in Syria. One of his famous piece is The Swamp.

MODERN IRAQI LITERATURE:

At the end of the Ottoman Empire, Modern Iraq was established by Britain in 1921. In 1932, Britain established ‘Kingdom of Iraq’ and in 1958 by the ’14th July Revolution’ Hashemut monarchy was overthrown and Republic of Iraq was established2. In the year of 1979, Saddam Hussein took the charge of the state. He remains chief of the state until the US-led invasion occurred in March 2003. In his regime, a lot of politically tumultuous incidents took place, such as Iraq-Iran war (1980-1988), Invasion of Kuwait, Gulf war etc. All these political incidents have their imprints in Literature. Iraq has no lack of writers to portray about their motherland sincerely. Therefore one side there was wide reflection of culture, tradition and heritage of Iraq and the other side the contemporary political problems and complexities were portrayed in literature. Badr shakir al-Sayyab (1926-1964) Nazik al- mala’ika (b.1923), Abd al-wahhab al-Bayah(1926-1999), Buland al-Hydani 1926-1990) all of them were most important poets in World Literature who belong to this country. They had given a whole new dimension and thematic structures to the Arabic poetry. For the other literary branches Salih j. Altoma’s remarks on his ‘Iraq’s Modern Arabic Literature in English.

Translation 1950-2003′, is significant. Here he says, “The other genres (Drama, Novel and short story) are marginally repressed primarily because on the whole, more concerned with sociopolitical themes, current issues or revolutionary causes than with the artist requirement”. Although in his bibliography he was only able to mention seven works in the genres of novels and short stories (J. Altoma , Salih;, 2004). Behind this situation there was a historical event, which is known as ccensorship. This incident can be understood in Iraqi Literature roughly around two periods of history of the modern Iraqi literature. One was on the monarchic regime to the establishment of Republic of Iraq and the other was on when the Baath party came into the power to until the US-led invasion of Iraq. The modern Iraqi Literature was greatly moved by this censorship. Salah Salim Ali says in his essay, “Ideology, Literature: Iraq as case Censorship and study”, that, “It was also the target of censorship that forced many writers and poets underground or into exile outside of Iraq. Thus, the history of Iraqi Literature is by necessity also the history of censorship” (Salim Ali, Salah ;, 2008). After surpassing those hardships Modern Iraqi Literature can easily be traced on the literary map of the world. Here we can discuss some of the celebrated modern Iraqi authors and about their works.

Hassan Blasim is a notable film director and writer of Modern Iraq. He left his motherland and started to stay in Finland as a refugee in 2004. His short story collection The Madman of Freedom square was longlisted for the  Independent Foreign Fiction Prize’ in 2010. For his another book Iraqi Christ, he won the previously mentioned price and became the first Arabic writer to win it. He is considered as one of the most significant writers in modern West Asian Literature. He wrote thirteen fictions and many other non- fictions. Tobacco Keeper is regarded as one of the best work of him, where he discussed the false identities and the Americanization of Iraq. His other well-known works are Papa Sartre, The running After the Wolves, The Sinful Woman etc. Another important writer is Luay Hamza Abbas. He is mainly a short story writer, although he wrote a few novels. His short story collection Closing his eyes (2008) was widely celebrated and was translated into English by Yashmeen hanoosh. Hawla al-Nadawi isbone of the youngest writer in Modern Iraqi Literature. During the Saddam Hussein’s regime she was born in Baghdad. Her both parents were political prisoners. In her childhood days she stays in the prison with her mother. At the age six her family shifted in Denmark, where she grew up. The Under the Copenhagen Sky is her first novel for which she was nominated for the Arabic booker prize in 20123 (Freeland, Lucy 2017).

MODERN ARABIC LITERATURE

A literary transformation was observed in the 19th century’s Arabic Literature. It is considered as the renaissance in Arabic Literature. ‘al-Nahda’ is the term which is used for literary renaissance. It was originated in Syria and later it influenced Egypt and Lebanon. After that they sensibly avoided the European practices and regain its former place in the map of World Literature. The effect was not only felt in the Arab but also in other countries. Translation was a significant medium to this renaissance. Both, translation from Arabic and to Arabic were happening in equal pace. Although this translation movement began in Egypt by the governor Mohammad Ali pasha. He was the first to import printing machine in Egypt in 1828. And that time, most significant translator was Rif’a rif’a al-Tahtawi. He translated many important books. One more noticeable thing is that most of the early novel which have been translated into Arabic were actually French-originated. These include Alexander Dumas’s Le Comte de Monte Cristo (Count of Monte Cristo), Jules verne’s Cinq Semaines en Ballon, (Five weeks in balloon) throughout the twentieth century. Like other authors across the globe Arabian writers also started to write about social issues. Anti-colonial themes were marked its place during this time. In the literary genre like poetry, the poets like Francis Marrash, Ahmad Shawqi and Hajiz Ibrahim revived the classical poetic forms. And there were another group of poets who were sought inspiration from the European Romantics and practiced the ideas in their own work. In other literary branches, such as novels, plays, were also greatly moved by the renaissance and for this the whole Arabian Literature get a new shape (I. Jabra  Jabra  1971).

Zakaria Tamer is one of the most celebrated short story writer in modern Arabic language. In the Arab world his works are frequently translated. He also writes for children.

In the modern Arabic Children’s Literature he is considered as a pioneering figure. He has published eleven short story collections and several children’s story and two collections of satirical article. His primary theme of all the stories is the social injustice, discrimination and the political problems of his homeland Syria. His two short story collections, Tigers on the Tenth day (1985) and Breaking knees‘ were translated into English. Both of these works got very much affection in readers’ world. His two satirical articles were Glories, Arabs, Glories (1986) and The victim’s satire of his Killer (2003). In 2009, he was awarded the ‘Blue Metropolis Montreal International Literary Prize’.

Shukri Mabkhout is an important critic and novelist. He was born in Tunis in 1962. He is also an administrator of a Tunisian University. He has works on literary criticism also. He got the prestigious International Prize for Arabic Fiction (IPAF) for his very first novel The Italian. The background of this novel is Tunisia, and in the periods of Habib Bourguiba’s thirty years rule (1957-1987) and Zine el Abidin Ben Ali’s 24 years in power (1987-2011). The title of the novel set upon the nickname of the protagonist, whose journey on these two power structures is the prime subject of the novel. This novel was banned in the entire emirates.

In the glorious and enriched literary history of Arab. These modern writers through their work continuing the legacy of the heritage. In this section another significant writer is Raja Alem. He was born in Mecca in 1970. She published three novels, several plays and a collection of short story. Her most attractive part of writing is the style and the theme. In her prose and fiction she deals with the traditional themes and the modern style together. She won the IPFF in 2011 for the novel The dove’s Necklace. She has several prizes in her credit, like Arabic women’s Creative Writing Prize in 2005 and Lebanese Literary Club prize in 2008.

Another Tunisian born writer Ahlem Mosteghanemi is next in our list. She is the first Algerian woman writer of Arabic language. Her father was a political activist, during the war period he was a political prisoner and his family was sent in exile. After independence (1962) they came back to their homeland. In the early 70s she became writer. She started to host a poetical radio show Hammassat (whispers). In 1973 her first collection of poetry ‘Ala’ Margaret Al Ayam ‘ (To the Days Haven) was published. After shifting to Beirut she wrote her first novel Memory in Flesh in 1993. Till now it is one of the best seller in Arab world. This novel was written in poetic style and the focal theme is lives in the post war context. She is regarded as the most successful Arabic writer by the ‘Forbes’ magazine. Some of her notable works include Chaos of the senses (1997), Bed Hopper (2005), The Art of Forgetting (2010) etc.4  (Medhat , Noha;, 2017).

MODERN IRANIAN LITERATURE

Through the introduction with the modern literary techniques and innovation, contemporary Iranian Literature transformed significantly. The new age writers’ social and political thinking brings the modernism in Iranian Literature. The Persian (became Iran in 1935) is one of the oldest literature of the world. From the 19th century onwards Persian Literature entered into a new juncture of time at the court of Naserddin Shah (Persian Language & Literature: A Brief History of Persian Literature, 2017). With the writings of Sadegh Hedayat (1903-1951) in fiction and Nima Yushji (1895-1960) in poetry, we can consider the entry of modernity in the literature of Iran. Sadegh Hedayat was the pioneer of modernism in Literature of Iran. He acutely criticised the monarchy and clergy simultaneously. Through his fiction he wanted to bring the new era by repeatedly attacking those two evil powers. In his life time he wrote numerous fictions, drama, travelogues, criticisms and translated a huge number of texts by Chekov, Kafa, Jean Paul Sartre and many more. His one of the greatest critically acclaimed work is The Blind Owl, which was completed and published in Bombay during his visit in Indian. And another significant literary figure, with whose poetry, the Persian Literature observes a new modernity, is Nima Yushji (1896-1960). He is regarded as the father of modern Persian poetry. During the age of censorship in Iran, Nima’s poetry was allowed to be publish until the 1930s (Malek Mohamadi , Nima ;, 2015). He changed the conventional rhythm pattern of Persian poetry, in place of restricted meters he gave the freedom of length till thought is released completely. Another historical incident ‘The constitutional revolution ‘ of Iran (1905-07) helps to develop the path for the modern writers. With all these a new era of modernity started its journey.

Houshang Golshiri was the foremost literary figure who adopted the modern techniques. He started writing fiction in the late 1950s. His most remarkable work is his first novel Prince Ehtejab (1969). Which is written in the context of in the 1920s. This novel shows the darker side of Quajari dynasty. This novel also adapted into film in 1974 by Bahman Farmanara. His other works were Five treasures (Panj Ganj), The Fifth Innocent ( Massoum’e Panjom) ,The Book of Genies (Jen Nameh) etc.

Shahriar Mandanipour is one of the important modern Persian writer. He was born in 1957. He is not only an Iranian writer but a well-known International literary personnel. In 2009 he won the Mehlegan Award for the best Iranian children’s novel. Mandanipour started his creative writing in his teen age. Shadows of the Cave was the first short story written by him, after this he has published several short story collections, such as The eighth day of the Earth ,Mummy and Honey, violet Orient , Midday Moon etc. He also faced the censorship problems from 1992-1997. And because of this he could not able to publish any of his fictions. In 1998, he published his novel Del-e Del Dadegi. It is chiefly a love story which circles around the four protagonists. Who were resembles the four prime elements of the nature. But all the credit of Mandanipour’s lies on his greatest novel, Censoring an Iranian Love Story. Till now this novel has been translated in eleven languages of the world and it is the first to be translated into English. This novel discusses the different problems of West Asia under a disguise of love story.

In the modern era of Iranian Literature Simin Daneshvar has enough of contribution. Born in 1921, she was the first female fiction writer in Iranian Literature. In the conservative Iran, she did not disclose her original name, in place of that she used a pen name that is ‘A nameless Shiraji’. But when she published her first collection of short story she used her actual name, and this made a history of itself. Suvushun (The Mourners) was the milestone of her literary career. Published in 1969, this novel was set in around her motherland, Shiraj. Its main aim was to show the condition of British captured Shiraj during the time of Second World War Through this novel we can visualize the inner self of the contemporary Iranian Life. After its release from the press, it became the best seller till date in Persian Language. Her other works are Sargardani (it is a trilogy. First volume, Wandering Islands published in 1992 , second wandering cameleer 2001, third, Wandering Mountain, not published ), Entekhab (2007) etc. She has also translated several works in Persian such as G.B Shaw’s Arms and the Man, Chekhov’s Enemies , The Cherry Orchard etc. (Kingsford-Smith, Andrew  2017).

ISRAELI LITERATURE

Israeli Literature mainly written in Hebrew language though it includes other few languages. The tradition of Israeli Literature has been started in the eastern region of the European Continent. From the mid-19th century, Chaim Bachmann Bialik, Saul Tchernikhowsky are considered as pillars of modern Hebrew Literature. After them, we can traced some other literary figure who paved the path for the 21st century modern writers, such as Rahul Blowsy (1890-1931) Esther Arab (1899-1981) etc. One thing noticeable here is , all the early modern literary figures were mainly poets, prose and fiction came in this language a bit later. From the mid twentieth century, Israeli prose literature was introduced by Yakov Shabtai (1934- 1981), Ahaon Megger (1920-2016) David Shahar (1926-1997) . They primarily tried in  theirs writings to concentrate upon their own life which made them successful to distinguish sharply between the classical literature and to the modern. In the 21st century, the modem writers doing the same to carry forward this tradition.

Amos Oz is the living legend of Israeli Literature. He is one of the most translated author in the modern literary world. He was born in 1939, his autobiographical novel A Tale of Love and Darkness is his best representation of literary merit, in which he expresses all his memories and emotions. It was first published in Hebrew in 2002. In this memoir he discusses all his personal issues to the readers. This novel is already been translated in twenty eight languages and even it turns into a film in 2014 by Natalie Portman where she played his mother’s role. Oz started his literary career with the publication of a short story collections Where the Jackals Howl in 1965. His first novel was Elsewhere, Perhaps in 1966. He has already published 39 books. Some notable among them are My Michael, A perfect peace, Black Box, Judas etc.

Another significant Israeli modern writer is Yoram Kaniuk. He is writer, painter, journalist, theatre critic. Kaniuk became the famous literary figure across the globe after the publication of his autobiographical novel ‘1948’. For this novel he won the prestigious Sapir prize. He uses stream of consciousness in his writing. His works always reflect the strong opposition against the harmful political affairs. In his life span he had published 17 novels and many short stories, essays, articles, some of them are The Acrophile (1960), Himmo,  King of Jerusalem (1968), confessions of a Good Arab, Between Life and Death etc5 (Mintz, Alan L.;, 2001).

Indian academic focus

West Asian literature is now one of the very significant component of the world literature. Disciplines like Comparative Literature, English in India also have component of West Asian literature. Especially Naguib Mahfouz is widely received in different academic disciplines in India. Not only that, Indian publisher like the Speaking Tiger publishes Mahfouz’s On Art, Literature and History. He is perhaps one of the most read literary figure from the West Asian literature across the globe. Besides this, there are several disciplines in different universities of India what focuses on the West Asian politics, history, economics, culture and society. Jamia Millia Islamia University is one of those6. Aligarh Muslim University is the first university to introduce West Asian Studies in 19677. After recommendations from UGC expert committee report, this study centre converted into a full-fledged department in 1996 as the ‘Department of West Asian Studies and North African Studies ‘. University of Calicut has also the Centre for west Asian Studies8. Except these, University of Calcutta also has introduced such centre9, the Centre for Pakistan and West Asian studies, for exchanging the views and knowledges for cultural empowerment.

Conclusion

In this module we briefly talk about different West Asian literature and major writers of those literatures. With this study it is observed that West Asian literature is one of very significant component in World Literature and this literary category is well received across the world. West Asian literature as a component in English department is important because it introduces the readers with one of the oldest civilization and people of a wide region.

Such study also helps us to understand the politics of translation and literary reception. Continues unrest in different countries of Wets Asia, continues warfare, displacement of innocent people, crisis in refugee life all these issues attract the vision of the people across the globe. Translation and literary reception of West Asian literature in different languages of the world, especially into English happens because of this to. There is also noble cause from the part of the publishers, translators, and the readers that they would like to extend solidarity to the oppressed people of the regions.

 References                                                                                                                                 

• Freeland, Lucy;. (2017, March 19). 10 Contemporary Iraqi Writers You Should Know. Retrieved from Culture Trip: https://theculturetrip.com/middle-east/iraq/articles/10- contemporary-iraqi-writers-you-should-know/
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• Altoma , Salih;. (2004). Iraq’s Modern Arabic Literature in English Translation 1950-2003. Journal of Arabic Literature, 88-138.
• Kingsford-Smith, Andrew ;. (2017, March 13). Voice Of A Modern Iran: Ten Must Read Iranian Authors. Retrieved from Cultural Trip: https://theculturetrip.com/middle- east/iran/articles/voice-of-a-modern-iran-ten-must-read-iranian- authors/https:/theculturetrip.com/middle-east/iran/articles/voice-of-a-modern-iran-ten- must-read-iranian-authors/
• MacIntyre, Alasdair;. (1981, April). The Nature of the Vertues. The Hastings Centre, 11(2).
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• Mintz, Alan L.;. (2001). Translating Israel: Contemporary Hebrwe Literature and Reception in America. New York: Syracuse University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?id=l2mLo- wWmZsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=israeli+literature&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKE wjynpSH7vTSAhXHNo8KHRC3CDoQ6AEIQzAJ#v=onepage&q=israeli%20literatu re&f=false
• Persian Language & Literature: A Brief History of Persian Literature. (2017, March 14).
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• Salim Ali, Salah ;. (2008). Ideology, Censorship, and Literature: Iraq as a Case Study.
• Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana), 213-220.
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