16 Post-Confederation Poetry

Dr. Swagata Bhattacharya

In this Chapter we shall discuss:

• The background of Confederation poetry
• Biographies of Confederation poets
• Summaries of the twelve poems: ‘Ballad to a Kingfisher’, ‘To Winter’, ‘A Vagabond Song’, ‘Low Tide on Grand Pré’, ‘Snow’, ‘A Summer Evening’, ‘When Spring Goes By’, ‘At the Cedars’, ‘The Titanic’, ‘Come Not the Seasons Here’, ‘Gisli the Chieftain’, ‘Malcolm’s Katie’

Confederation poetry: Canadian poetry composed between 1867 and 1918 is generally regarded as Confederation poetry. A group of poets began writing poems following the formation of the new Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867. They called themselves ‘Confederation poets’. Among them, the most prominent were Charles G.D.Roberts, Archibald Lampman, Bliss Carman and Duncan Campbell Scott. The first volume of verse in the newly confederated  Canada  was  published  by  Charles  Mair  in  1868  called  Dreamland  and Other Poems. Isabella Valancy Crawford was another prominent figure of the period. Her books Malcolm’s Katie and Other Poems (1884) and Old Spookses’ Pass (1894) spoke of a frustrated life at Peterborough and Toronto. In the second half, i.e. from 1900 to 1918 Pauline Johnson and Robert Service dominated the scene. These poets failed to match the work of their immediate predecessors and the achievements of the Confederation poets remained unchallenged till the emergence of E.J. Pratt after the First World War.

1.   Charles G.D. Roberts (1860-1943)

About the poet: Charles George Douglas Roberts, hailed as the Father of Canadian Poetry was born in 1860 in New Brunswick. He was the first among Canadian poets to obtain worldwide reputation. He started his career as a school principal and later became the editor of Chatham Star. His first book of poems Orion and Other Poems (1880) created quite a stir. In Divers Tones and Songs of the Common Day are among his other books. Roberts was famous for using the ‘animal story’, i.e. a Native Canadian art form, in his poems. He was a huge influence among his contemporaries as well as his successors.

Ballad to a Kingfisher : ‘Ballad to a Kingfisher’ is a combination of nature and mythology. The poem is addressed to a kingfisher, a bird who symbolizes eternal love. The poet asks the kingfisher from where it has come and how it intends to suit itself in the windy cliffs and rocks of the Canadian landscape. The poem is addressed to such a bird who should thrive in softer climates than Canada and the poet does not conceal his surprise in finding a kingfisher thriving on minnows. The poem is based on the Greek myth of the love story between Ceyx, the king of Thessaly, and Alcyone. According to the mythology, Ceyx and Alcyone were a perfectly happy couple, and were compared to Zeus and Hera because of their compatibility. This had angered Zeus so much that he had thrown a thunderbolt on the ship in which Ceyx was sailing. Ceyx got drowned but came back to tell his wife what had happened. Unable to bear the grief, Alcyone threw herself into the sea. This love story moved the gods so much that out of compassion they changed the two love birds into water birds. This family of birds is known as Halcyon, taking their name from Alcyone. Kingfishers belong to this family of Halcyons. Roberts also alludes to Ovid and Milton in his poem. Ovid’s Metamorphoses refers to Halcyons while talking about the various transformations (11.745-6). Milton’s ‘On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity’ (1629) also refers to this myth about the transformation of Alcyone into a kingfisher. By alluding to these famous literary works, Roberts tries to establish the significance of the kingfisher in mythology as well as in literature. His emphasis is on the “illustrious line” of the kingfisher who symbolizes eternal love and hope in the face of doom and despair. He urges the kingfisher not to be content and never to resign even in face of terrible anguish. It has been born to brave storms and thrive in a difficult world. Though on the face of it, the poem is addressed to a particular bird and refers quite specifically to a particular myth, the poem is very much related to the nature and landscape of Canada. It alludes to the difficulties of thriving in the Canadian nature.

To Winter: ‘To Winter’ is an ode to the winter season in the fashion of Keats’s ‘Ode to Autumn’. In this long poem, the poet addresses the season which rules “with an iron hand”. Winter in Canada is a particularly harsh season, a time of the year when everything is barren and rugged. The poet describes his awe at the ruthlessness of winter which rudely overrides everything delicate. In spite of its ruggedness, winter too has its own magic melodies. The sobbing of the brooks and the waterfalls, the gurgling sound of the streams flashing through the meadows, and the cackling of the wild geese add to its charm. The poet lists a number of sights and sounds which fill the countryside throughout the year except in winter. The music of the leaves, the sunlight, the rapturous cooing of birds, the bright shining stars, none are to be found in this dark, silent season. The only audible sound is that of the snowbirds’ twitter under the bitter breath of snow. The second part of the poem is a comparison between the two seasons of winter and autumn, and the poet’s personal prejudice towards autumn. Just as he had listed the negatives of winter, now he enlists the positives of autumn. He goes on to share how rich, how luscious and how elegant the season of autumn is. The last part of the poem is again addressed to winter and the poet declares his happiness in knowing that winter shall soon give way to spring. He ends with saying that the realm of winter is bordered by richer and sweeter seasons. Hence, the ruler with the iron hand is a short-lived ruler and need not be feared.

2.   William Bliss Carman (1861-1929) 

About the poet: William Bliss Carman was born in Fredericton, in the maritime province of New Brunswick. Bliss spent most of his life in the United States of America where he worked as an editor of New York Independent. As a student of Harvard University, Bliss was influenced by spiritual idealism and transcendentalism of Ralph Emerson. His first book Low Tide on Grand Pré (1893) brought him instant success. Among his other notable works are Songs of Vagabondia(1894), Behind the Arras: A Book of the Unseen (1895), Ballad of the Lost Haven (1897), Sappho: One Hundred Lyrics (1904), etc.

A Vagabond Song : ‘A Vagabond Song’ is yet another eulogy of the autumn season. Just like Charles G.D. Roberts, Bliss Carman too follows the same tradition of British Romanticism and undoubtedly has a Keatsian influence. The opening line of his poem, “There is something in the autumn that is native to my blood” attributes to this fact. It is a short fourteen-line poem which praises autumn as the season of mood, rhyme, and colours such as crimson, purple and yellow.

It sets the mood for joy and festivity. The scarlet colour of the maple leaves fills the poet’s heart with music and joy. The frosty asters upon the hills make him long to go for a walk. It is the spirit of the season that urges the poet to get up and follow her, from one hill to another. It is the season of autumn which ignites the passion of “vagabondia” within the poet, he feels that autumn calls “each vagabond by name”.

Low Tide on Grand Pré: ‘Low Tide on Grand Pré’ is a picturesque description of the beautiful landscape of a Canadian meadow. It refers to a pre in Acadie (also known as Acadia, the original French base in Canada). The poem begins with the description of the sunset in the Pré which bears testimony to the history of the French in Canada. “A grievous stream” flows through the fields of Acadie as the history of French colonization in Canada has gone through many low tides. The poet laments that it was not very long ago when they had the right over this land and ruled it. At present, the river beneath their feet has become drowsy and there is gloom everywhere in the air. Loss and death have taught them to become wise but not to give up dreaming. The poet asks whether, at the end of the day, desires and regrets, fears and memories, and tomorrow and yesterday all become one. The poem ends on a note of grief as the tide, now and again, comes drifting across the barren land. The harsh wind and the cold foam of the freezing sea seem like a sigh to the poet. He feels that grief, like flood, is waiting to burst into homes.

3.   Archibald Lampman (1861-1899)

About the poet: Archibald Lampman is described as the Canadian Keats. Lampman was born in Ontario and, along with Wilfred Campbell and Duncan Campbell Scott, wrote a literary column ‘At the Mermaid Inn’ for Toronto Globe (February 1892- July 1893). Lampman was a huge fan of G.D. Roberts, the most popular and widely anthologized among the Confederation poets. He wrote over 300 poems on nature and love. His famous works are Among the Millet and Other Poems (1888), Lyrics of Earth (1895), Alcyone (1899).

Snow: Lampman’s ‘Snow’ is similar in theme and treatment to Charles Roberts’s ‘To Winter’. Lampman was influenced by Roberts to a great extent and most of his nature poems are examples of the fact that he tried to imitate Roberts’ themes though his own poems are far more lyrical. In ‘Snow’ Lampman describes a picturesque scene of a winter day where the far off plains and the fading forests are shrouded under a cloak of snow. The roads, the fences, the hills all seem to be blotted out, and the naked trees stand in a line in the landscape under a dull white sky. The meadows stand still because the streams are all frozen and hence there is a disturbing silence. The only sound is the soft thud of snow balls being thrown around. The other sound is that of the rustle of farmers’ sleigh and the tinkling of bells worn by the dogs. The bleat of the sheep echoing from a far away hill is another occasional disturbance. For the rest, there is absolute calm and quiet. As the evening deepens, the numbness increases and the poet starts falling asleep. In his dream, he hears the sound of streams gurgling and bursting. Content with some sound, the poet keeps on dreaming happily.

The Canadian singer/ songwriter Loreena McKennitt adapted the poem and the song in her album To Drive the Cold Winter Away (1987)

A Summer Evening: ‘A Summer Evening’ describes a quiet evening in summer which does not appear to differ very much from a winter evening. There are clouds, blue-misted hills, mysterious bales, and the picture of a perfect, peaceful world. There is stillness and silence, but also the shining sun and the starry sky. There is the cricket chattering away, and the nostalgia of old times. The summer evening seems to be a familiar, almost like an eternal part of nature. In the long summer evenings, there is joy and contentment but not excitement. As the sun sets and night falls, the joy gives way to a feeling of coldness and numbness. The darkness makes the poet feel that sleep or death is slowly approaching. Thus, the contentment gives way to a hint of sadness as a summer evening transforms into a summer night.

4.   Duncan Campbell Scott (1852-1947) 

About the poet: Scott was a bureaucrat, poet and writer. Born in Ottawa, he worked as a civil servant from 1913-1932 and was known for advocating the assimilation of Canada’s First Nations into the mainstream society. His first book The Magic House and Other Poems was published in 1893. Labor and the Angel (1898), New World Lyrics and Ballads (1905) are among his other books. Scott was interested in non-fiction as well.

When Spring Goes By: ‘When Spring Goes By’ talks of the poet’s ecstasy as winter takes leave and the season of spring approaches. Nature changes her attire, winds start blowing softly and the first robin pops up and tries to announce the herald of spring. While still ice lingers on the rocks, the poet knows that spring is not far behind. The soft buds peep in the woods, the frail fruits start growing and the banishing lakes intend to return. The new moon and the clear sky bring back the rapture in the poet’s heart. The glad robin wakes everyone up by crying joyfully “Spring! Spring!”. Along with the robin, the poet too dances with joy.

At the Cedars: ‘At the Cedars’, perhaps the best known poem Scott is a deliberate experimentation where the theme is very much like his short stories. It is a love story between Baptiste and Isaac Dufour. Isaac was a foreman who worked in the lumber fields and was in love with Baptiste. It was difficult to persuade the girl and one day when she was picking berries on the other side of the river Cedars, Isaac went to cross the river and fell down. The logs which he had cut caught him and crushed him. When Baptiste saw the blood, she did not scream but steadily launched her canoe into the river. It hit a log and cracked like a shell. The poet who stood as an observer on the shore saw both of them sink together. It is a tragedy that haunted him forever.

After the Confederation Poets, the most prominent figure in the next phase of post-Confederation poetry in Canada was E.J.Pratt.

5. E.J. Pratt (1882-1964)

About the poet: Edwin John Dove Pratt was born in Newfoundland, studied at the University of Toronto and taught English Literature at Victoria College. His first poem ‘Rachel: A Sea Story of Newfoundland’ was published in 1917. His first memorable collection was Newfoundland Verse published in 1923. His other notable works include The Witch’s Brew (1925) and Brebeuf and his Brethren (1940). Pratt is famous for describing the struggle to make a living on the land in his poems about maritime life and the history of Canada. His long narrative poems depict the dark side of nature and the struggle for survival. For example, The Titanic, Brebeuf and His Brethren, Towards a Last Spike, etc.

The Titanic: ‘The Titanic’ was written by Pratt in 1935 about the sinking of the ship, the Titanic, on April 14/15, 1912 in the North Atlantic Ocean. About 50 of the liner’s passengers were either Canadian residents or were migrating to Canada. The initial wireless messages sent from the sinking ship were picked up in Montreal and then relayed to the rest of the world. Several of the dead bodies found were brought to Halifax, Nova Scotia and buried in local cemeteries. Hence, Pratt considers this mammoth historical tragedy to be a Canadian one. His poem chronicles the journey of the ship, from her launch on May 31, 1911 to her destruction on April 15, 1912.

The poem is a long descriptive one which minutely touches upon all the details that have now become almost legendary. In the first half, there is the glory and the pride of a mighty ship which boasted of having taken every precaution against danger. The first part of the poem describes the grandeur, the splendor and the mightiness of the gigantic ship. The beauty and the aura was indeed breathtaking. However, the aura did not last long and soon grandeur gave way to despair. The second half of the poem describes in great detail the incidents which took place one after the other. As the ship hit the iceberg, the change in the attitude of its crew and later its passengers have been delineated carefully. Next comes the tragic description of the desperation shown by the crew and the passengers. The last part is purely a part of lamentation and grief at the tremendous loss which the world has suffered. It was not a paltry tragedy; however, in a sense it was a deeply connected Canadian tragedy. As Margaret Atwood says that all essentially Canadian works of literature end in a tragic note, Pratt’s poem is also one of the essential struggles for survival. The passengers of the Titanic had desperately wanted to survive but had to give up in the face of nature’s adversity. All the might and prowess of human beings failed to live up before the might of nature. Pratt’s retelling of this tragic incident in a dark, somber poem is in line with his other melancholic creations such as Brebeuf and his Brethren which was also a story of blood and violence resulting in a tragic end.

Come Not the Seasons Here: ‘Come Not the Seasons Here’ is Pratt’s lamentation on the dominance and overwhelming presence of the winter season in Canada. He rues that “here” i.e. in Canada, spring does not come. The joyful sounds of spring, a child’s cry or a cuckoo’s call are not to be found in Canada. After spring, the second stanza of the poem laments the absence of summer. The red poppy in the morning light or the wild rose are not the sights of Canada. Similarly, autumn also does not visit this land. It is from the brown pastures and the dry wells that farmers realize that autumn has arrived, but the pleasures of autumn cannot be felt by them. It is only the coldness of a glacial storm that can be felt in Canada. It is a harsh, cold land where the change of seasons goes unnoticed and the pleasures of every season fail to touch the people of the land.

In his introduction to The Penguin Book of Canadian Verse, Ralph Gustafson had remarked, “There are no Aphrodites in Canadian poetry, the sea foam is too cold.” The poems of Roberts, Lampman, Scott and Pratt show us the relevance of this statement. Quite a number of poems have been written on the nature of Canada but very few of them have been able to praise the beauty of Canada’s landscape and her seasons. Every now and then, the ruggedness and harshness of the landscape and the climate has come up prominently.

Thus, we find that like his predecessors, E.J. Pratt too has expressed his anguish at the lack of warmth in the Canadian landscape and has agreed with the Confederation poets in his deleneation of the winter season in Canada.

Apart from the Confederation poets and Pratt, another significant poet deserves to be mentioned in this module. She is Isabella Valancy Crawford.

6. Isabella Valancy Crawford (1846-1887) About the poet:

Isabella Valancy Crawford was born in Dublin, Ireland and migrated to Canada in her infancy. From a very early age she started writing poems and stories in newspapers to earn her living. She has remained a significant figure in Canadian literature for being one of the earliest women writers of Canada. Her most famous work is a long narrative poem Malcolm’s Katie: A Love Story (1884). Old Spookses’ Pass in which ‘Gislie the Chieftain’ appears was published in 1894.

Malcolm’s Katie: Malcolm’s Katie is a series of interrelated love stories. In addition to the story of love between Max and Katie, there is the story of love between Katie and her father Malcolm, the love of Alfred for Malcolm’s gold and the patriotic love of Max for his nation. All these love stories culminate in the triumph of love and the creation of a new Edenic society. On all these levels there is conflict, and the ultimate triumph of love.

The main image of the poem is the ring that Malcolm places on Katie’s hand in the opening line of the poem. The silver ring was made from the silver coin that Max had earned in exchange of hard labour. Thus, money, the symbol of commerce is transformed into ring, the symbol of love.

The poem, though a long narrative one, is divided into three definite sections. The first part develops the relationship between Max and Katie. The second part goes on to describe the bond between Katie and her rich father Malcolm who is shown to love his daughter dearly. Part III describes Malcolm’s way of life where money was of sole importance to him and people like Alfred. In the end, Malcolm is won over by the honesty and integrity of Max and Max and Katie unite.

Northrop Frye has described Isabella Valancy Crawford’s poems as ‘mythopoeic’. In this poem, along with myths, there is a significant anthropomorphization of nature – sun-moon, north wind- south wind, Indian culture-white culture are all symbols of nature as well as binary opposites.

The poem consists of songs in the tradition of drama. This serves the dramatic function of reflecting personal stakes, and commenting on particular situations from outside as in oral songs.

Summary of Gisli the Chieftain: ‘Gisli the Chieftain’ presents the complete annual cycle of Gisli, whose name in Icelandic means sunbeam. Crawford rejoins figures from separate mythologies combining the Russian Goddess Lada (Goddess of love and fertility) and the Icelandic God Odin and Brynhild. The main characters in this narrative poem are Lada, Gisli and his rival Brynhild who is caught between the two. The eagle and the swan are two symbols of Gisli and Brynhild, Odin here is the father figure. The structural core of all of Crawford’s works is romance. She constantly uses the motifs of fair and dark, a world of confusion and darkness followed by ascent and rediscovery of identity.

‘Gisli the Chieftain’ is a long narrative poem divided into four parts. It is a solar myth in which Gisli represents the mythical figure of the Sun whose cyclical movement is the main theme of the myth. As the sun goes through light and dark phases, life also has its phases of joy and sorrow.

In this poem Gisli carries a spear which represents the exuberance of life, of cosmic and biological energies. The entire Part I celebrates Gisli’s spear and his rivalry with Brynhild. Gisli is related to all other active masculine symbols such as the eagle that kills the dove, and the West wind that blows away the mists. In Part I, Gisli himself is the chief agent, in Part II the Westwind and in Part II, the eagle.

In Part I, Gisli asks Lada to “give the flesh its fitting wife”. Part II shows the winning of his destined mate, Brynhild with whom he is not happy. In Part III however, the eagle triumphs over its adversaries. Lada is shown weaving the pattern of life and death, and the opposites are connected by the symbol of conflict. Gisli’s spear, the agent of death, is bound with “buds of spring”. It is identified with the shafts of the sun’s rays and the eagle’s piercing red gaze. The arrow performs his necessary role, knowing nothing of the shape and meaning of the entire cycle. Crawford uses the symbol of the eagle to represent the spirit of the fighter. The eagle is the only creature able to gaze directly at the sun and carry its victim up to a height in the sky. In the Icelandic myth, the eagle is Odin’s pet. In the Part III, the arrows of Gisli and Brynhild pierce the eagle’s breast which symbolizes the death of the old sun and implies that Gisli’s end is near. Gisli had defeated Brynhild’s present lord and after the fulfillment of his desire he is supposed to die. Brynhild takes up the role of Valkyrie (the chooser of the slain) and kills Gisli in order to marry her brother Gunnar. The old Gisli had to die in order to be reborn as the Spring Sun. This plot of Gisli links together the cycles of creation and destruction, life and death, spring and winter, love and hate.

The poem ends with understanding and reconciliation. The predominant sense of conflict and polarity which has been expressed in the weapons – the sharp spears, lances, arrows, hammers- is resolved in the final metaphor of twins and the image of clasping: “said the voice of Evil to the ear of Good, clasp thou mine strong right hand,/ Nor shall our clasp be known or understood by any in the land.”

To sum up

The similarities in the treatment of nature by the Confederation poets. We have also noted the treatment of love by poets like Duncan Campbell Scott and Isabella Valancy Crawford, as well as the emphasis on the Canadian concept of survival in E.J.Pratt’s ‘The Titanic’.

Reference

• Adams, John Coldwell. The Life of Sir Charles G.D.Roberts. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1986.
• Atwood, Margaret ed. The New Oxford Book of Canadian Verse. Ontario: Oxford University Press, 1985.
• Bentley, D.M.R. ed. Malcolm’s Katie. London: Poetry Press, 1987
• Campbell, Wanda. Hidden Rooms: Early Canadian Women Poets. Toronto: Canadian Poetry Press, 2000.
• Davis, Barrie ed. At the Mermaid Inn: Wilfrid Campbell. Archibald Lampman, Duncan Campbell Scott. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979.
• Djwa, Sandra. E.J.Pratt: The Evolutionary vision. Edmonton: Hurtig, 1974. Gustafson, Ralph ed. The Penguin Book of Canadian Verse. Ontario: Penguin, 1967
• Kroller, Eva-Marie ed. The Cambridge Companion to Canadian Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge Universtiy Press, 2004
• Miller, Muriel. Bliss Carman: A Portrait. Toronto: Ryerson, 1935.
• Pomeroy, Elsie. Sir Charles G.D. Roberts, A Biography. Toronto: Ryerson, 1943. Pratt, E.J. Selected Poems of E.J.Pratt. Toronto: McMillan, 1968.
• Smith, A.J.M ed. Towards a View of Canadian Letters. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1973.