6 Maori Identity of the South Pacific and Literatures

Ms. Nisha Ghatak

About The chapter:

This module elaborates on the idea of Maori Identity of the South Pacific. An area of study almost unknown to countries like our own, Maori culture is rich with vibrant socio-cultural settings. Through the course of this module, examples would be drawn from various sources of literature that can throw light on the distinctive identity possessed by the Maori people.

Introduction

‘With each generation following the same trend, the language became harder to learn, only remnants remain now, of a proud race that just got burned.’

– M. Mahauarik

The effects of colonization weighed down these words of a Maori poet. For most of us who live in the Northern hemisphere, Maori culture is almost unknown although their land, New Zealand, has been a spot of tourist attraction for decades. Touted as the most beautiful country in the world, New Zealand has its own breath of life. A concoction of vibrant culture, socio-linguistic excellence and literary brilliance are the natives of New Zealand in South Pacific – The Maoris.

The Maoris are the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand. They are believed to originate from eastern Polynesia and are supposed to have migrated to New Zealand by sea between the years 1250 and 1300 AD. They developed a rich culture, a distinctive understanding of art and craft and their own language – Te Reo Maori. Predominantly a tribal group, warrior culture was prevalent between them.

It was around the 17th century when European colonizers began their arrival on the coast and brought about major changes to the Maori lifestyle. Initially a cooperative relationship, soon the Maori population began witnessing a lot of social disharmony. Through decades of conflict and incessant outbreak of epidemics, the Maoris witnessed a lot of difficulties in upholding their culture. By the 20th century, the Maori people began slow recovery and soon made up for 15% of New Zealand’s population. Even today, Maori people face socio- economic obstacles with disparate incomes and health issues. However, the New Zealand government and other organizations within the country undertake several socio-economic initiatives to bridge the gap between Maoris and others who live in the country.

Often calling themselves ‘tangata whenua’ or ‘people of the land’, Maoris are given the opportunity to lead better lives and to showcase their cultural brilliance at every walk of life. An exciting feature of New Zealand literature from the 1970s is the emergence of Maori literature in English. The oral tradition is one of the most powerful tools of literature within Maori people. Speeches, chants, songs and a wide variety of narrative forms in the Maori language underwent a major change under the effects of European colonization. Written literature came up only during the nineteenth century amongst the Maoris. The literature and oral narratives by Maori people threw light on their distinctive language, their rich cultural heritage and most importantly on their identity. A European interpreter, John White, collected several historical traditions of the Maoris in exchange for narrating to them ‘western’ tales like ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’. John White’s novels relied heavily on Maori oral tradition as his      listeners      would      narrate      to      him      tales      of      Maori      folklore.     White published works like Te Rou in 1874 about Maori life while his work Revenge: a love tale of the Mount Eden Tribe had been published posthumously in the year 1.40. Another writer who best described the noble aspects of the Maori people was John Gorst in his novel ‘The Maori King’ [1864].

The Maori Society

The Maori were largely gatherers. They gathered wild food plants, shellfish, hunted birds and often grew crops like sweet potatoes in their home localities. Their tribal societies were largely flexible and well-organized and were led by a single ruler or tribal chief who had the control of a single large area. The tribal chief often counselled with his chosen set of male warriors about important issues. The Maori are known to be confrontational who had a flair for oratory and rhetoric. Only important men were allowed to speak in tribal councils although rarely women were also allowed to express their views – though this was mostly forcefully done.

The genres of Maori narrative were highly rhetorical. They spoke of their difficulties, group sentiments and their laments more than recitations of happiness. In most public gatherings and tribal councils, important male figures as well as the tribal chief resorted to narrative songs to address a particular social issue.

Oral Tradition in Maori

The oral tradition in Maori culture consisted of songs, prayers and narratives that have been handed down over several generations. These narratives soon turned into a source of their history, local lore and ancestral belonging. Maoris composed, memorized and later performed tales of historical wars, love poems on noble characters and chants or prayers invoking spirits and powerful God-heads. The Maori culture is one that has a rich past and each narrative peeks into the legends and lore surrounding the tales of tribal lords and innumerable Gods that  have unimaginable power over the Maori lives. Their powerful narrative technique continues to remain strong against the effects of modernized print technology though the tales of Maori culture have still not reached most of the people in the world.

The Maori language is rich and full of cultural significance. The Rev. Wm. Yate in his book An Account of New Zealand writes: “The language is peculiarly soft and sweet, and in the longest PAGE 17 speeches not a harsh sound ever strikes the ear… the language of New Zealand is remarkably rich, admits of a very varied phraseology, abounds in terms of peculiar nicety, and is capable of being reduced to the most precise grammatical principles. It abounds with words and with varieties of expression; and the shades of difference in the meaning of words is sometimes so minute as to render it very difficult to give a correct translation; while still that meaning is perfectly understood by a foreigner though unable to render it correctly  in his own tongue: at least not without much circumlocution.”

These narratives trace the story of their ancestors’ voyage to Aotearoa, the Maori name for New Zealand and they retrace the tradition of linking each famous ancestor who ended up founding descent tribal groups while defending their lands against outsiders. These narratives also spoke about the role of a man in the Maori society, the identity of a woman in a marriage and  related  each  social   issue   to   a   historically   accurate   narrative   of   a   legend.   The most powerful mode of narration which delved into the intricacies of Maori life is the ‘waiata’.

Waiata

Speaking about the effect of waiata in the lives of Maori people and the impact it created over the years, Dr.    Margaret Orbell says : “In waiata our forebears spoke their hearts – in grief and celebration. For many hundreds of years this great oral tradition of song flourished in Aotearoa. During the second half of the nineteenth century, in time of rapid change, Maori scholars recorded for the future the words of thousands of waiata.”

In her work, Traditional Songs of the Maori, Dr. Orbell and Dr. Mervyn McLean showcase a classic collection of Maori waiata songs. These songs have been composed in several distinctive styles and showcase the fundamental values of traditional Maori culture. The songs are still performed as part of a ‘marae’ ceremony and the most common emotions represented through them are : lament, love, war, songs of ceremonial welcome, wit. Waiata are best known for the level of sophistication they represent and the use of power, music and subtlety in  lyrics.

In her essay, “My Summit Where I Sit : Form and Content in Maori Women’s Love Songs”, Dr. Margaret Orbell speaks about the effects on religious conversions in Maoris between the years 1830 and 1845 when a lot of Maori converted to Christianity though their culture and society remained unchanged. The missionaries who were largely Protestant paid importance to the Maori knowing how to read and interpret the Bible, which they did fabulously. Soon between the years 1844 and 1855, a large number of manuscripts were compiled on the songs and prose narratives. This showed the kind of cooperation which existed between the invading Christian colonizers and the Maori.

The songs termed as ‘waiata aroha’ were songs of love or longing composed only by Maori women who sang of unrequited love and separation.

Identifying the Role of History and Narration in Maori Literature of South Pacific 

Records of human life always date back to oral tradition. Like the Greek and Indian epic tradition, the Maori tradition was also essentially oral. They performed war chants, plays, tales of romance and valour and prayers for themselves – and later for the European settlers. Maoris carry with them a strong record of mythology. They rely on mythology and folklore to explain tales of their past and narrate tales about their gods and tribal heroes. These help draw a parallel between them and the other ancient cultures around the world like the Greeks, Romans and Indians. When the Europeans descended on to the beautiful land of New Zealand, the native inhabitants of the large island intrigued them. Maori people were exuberant in showcasing their culture and love for their land. The mystery shrouded lives of these intriguing tribal groups coaxed several European settlers to know more about them.

This pushed several European writers in the nineteenth century to collect stories of the Maori culture and make them be known to a larger audience. Johannes Carl Andersen’s collection  of tales known as ‘Maori Faily Tales’ published in the year 1908 is one such work. The need to preserve the beautiful oral culture of the Maori came up due to the dwindling number of Maoris who were affected by the sudden outbreak of epidemics after Europeans began settling down in their regions.

Even today, Maoris prefer to uphold the essence of their exuberant culture. They often try to let go of the European features that had crept into their culture slowly over the centuries and still   believe   in   the   use   of   ‘Oratory’   on   the    ‘marae’    in    the    literature.    ‘Marae’ or tribal meeting place is a tradition where tales are narrated through the use of voice modulation, facial expressions and gestures – an important part of Maori culture until this day.

Audience often finds it difficult to make out the differences between a written text and an oratory performance. This was mostly because the Maori style of narration often attempts to bring the legend from the past unto the present, making the events seem more contemporary.

How has ‘narrative’ been defined as a vehicle of inquiry and speech in research?

French theorist Michel Foucault has defined ‘narrative’ as a vehicle of dominant ideologies and an instrument of power. However, Herman defines narrative as a fundamental way of organizing human experience and a tool for constructing models  of reality. Both these definitions hold true for the Maori people. While they use ‘narrative’ technique as means to construct their experiences, with the rise of colonial power in the country, they realized how with the use of narrative comes the acquisition of power or ‘mana’ as the Maoris call it.

A poem which addresses the problems of European colonization from the perspective of Maori people throws light on the issues of religious atrocities, war and symbolic conflicts faced by the Maori people under the effects of colonization.

Ture te haki

… you fly your flags of history quietly

for now

battle pendants hidden in wooden boxes

in blackened rooms

rotting and fading into dust underlyingwell intentioned eyes

that wonder at your beauty and your stories and

your size

no land beneath the wool and cotton

and silk

the star of David, the cross of Mikaere and the wounded heart

bleeding

no way for you to come home

you sit and wait for darkness to go quickly

for light to fall on your ruined threads

the flags are quiet

for now…

In these lines, the loss of one’s identity as an affect of colonization is persistent. The poet describes the remnants of war and uses flag as a symbol of power or ‘mana’. Several critics believe the poem describes the war between Maori and Pakeha which took place in the 18th century. It was due to this conflict that the Maoris ended up designing their own flags to represent their spiritual and religious beliefs and values, as these were the major factors that contributed to their conflict with Pakeha tribes. These flags became a symbol for inner strength amongst Maori people and represented bloodshed, loss and grief as an effect of war. The loss of cultural identity is also conveyed through the use of alliteration in the lines ‘battle pendants hidden in wooden boxes in blackened rooms’ while speaking about the loss of historical identity that lay buried and forgotten in the sands of time.

Construction and Reconstruction of Maori Identity

The concept of identity manifests itself not only at the level of the individual but also at the level of societies and interactions between groups .

Research on identity formation has revealed a clear link between family practices and identity development

The construction of Maori identity is fundamentally synonymous with the establishment of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. With this New Zealand officially became a colony under the British rule. Over the course of time, this treaty became the legal reference point for the Maori to exert their rights and file for compensation.  In his book Whaiora [1994], Mason Durie speaks about how earlier, the whanau was the place where initial teaching and socialisation amongst Maori people had taken place. More than being just an extended family social unit, the whanau lay emphasis on family ties as they shared a common ancestor and provided an environment within which certain obligations and responsibilities were well maintained.

Mason Durie’s book provides a close insight unto the hidden lives of the Maori as he puts forth the theory of how Maori people were exposed to the idea of various family arrangements.

Having been victims of colonisation, the Maori identity developed within an environment where they coexisted with ‘the other’. Traditionally, the Maori people identified themselves with the tribal structures to which they belonged. Some of these were – Whanau, Hapu, Iwi and Waka. These tribal structures acted as the backbone of the Maori society as it strengthened their political relations and sense of identity.

The location of their tribe within the Aotearoa [Maori name for New Zealand] and the geographical markers such as mountains, rivers, forests, became an intrinsic part of the Maori identity. Amongst the Maori, the respect for nature, natural resources, natural God-heads and their tribal lords held the utmost place. ‘Mana’ or self respect stems from the love for their land. Before the British colonisers descended, the iwi tribe amongst the Maori lived in a well- demarcated land with geographical boundaries. Several authors like Manuhuia Bennet, who have been closely associated with the Maori life, claim that their sense of identity emerges from their love for the land. Maori identity relies on the values and teaching instilled in them through the generations as spirituality and cultural descent find a unique place of importance amongst these people.

From their perspective, the Maoris believe that identity, spirituality and natural environment are an integral part of their identity – and not separate entities. In 1988, Maori Educationalist Rose Pere outlined six elements of Maori identity –

• A relationship with the land, providing them with a sense of belonging.
• Spirituality which provides them with a sense of purpose and meaning in life.
• Ancestral ties which provides them with guidelines for tribal life and wisdom.
• Tikanga Maori which are customs that hold value as well as cultural practices that are unique to just the Maori.
• Kinship ties that hold obligations which contribute to the well-being of the family.
• A sense of humanity providing the Maori with a sense of belonging to their community.

By the middle of the 19th century, traditional Maori songs had found a place in the Maori life. These songs were of oral original and have since been noted down from memory by the Maori in the years that followed. In spite of the British trying to acquire their sense of literacy and religious belief by converting them to Christianity, the Maoris struggled to preserve their songs and other prose narratives in the new and powerful medium of expression their colonizers had provided them. The British on their part made sure these narratives survived in their true sense through the written script. These narratives were an insight into the social lives of the Maori.

In due course of time, it had become usual for Maori families in New Zealand to keep manuscript books in their homes. These books usually had recordings of genealogies and texts of songs by their ancestors. Though most of these books have been destroyed accidentally over the years, a great number of them still exist.

A famous poem by Emira Maewa Kaihu from the year 1918 throws light on one of the early romantic poems by a female author. Emira Maewa Kaihu was born as Louisa Flavell at Whangoroa, in North Island. Being a descendant of French nobles who escaped from France during the French Revolution, Kaihu’s mother was a descendant of Nga Puhi Chief Hona Hika of Ngati Rahiri and Ngati Rehia Hapu.

This poem, ‘Akoako o te Rangi’, speaks about a lover who cries about the loss of her lover as she remembers him through the beauty of nature –

In

Te Reo Maori

Paurangi te ngakau e hine

Moe moe wairangi te wairua,

Maranga ma tangi hau ora

Tiro pei kata aroha irunga

Muri muri hui hui o u kape,

Kere kere aroha i runga

Maranga e hine kua rongo he rangi

Kahore he pouri ekore etaea ete aroha

English Translation

Beneath a tree, stricken with love, I crept

Weary and lost, alone I slept

Rising in hidden sweetest murmurs

Gentle breezes peep and smile

Softer than silence o’er my brow they played

Wafting love’s incense to my soul

Calling “Awake fond one, the heavens are glowing

There is no darkness love cannot light.

Maori Identity and The Known Poetic Genres

In the 18th century when the European colonizers arrived in New Zealand, the number of Maoris in New Zealand was 125,000 Maori. Back then, the Maori gathered wild food plants, hunted birds and caught fish for their livelihood. It was found that certain Maori tribes also grew some crops like sweet potatoes in pockets of areas. They were known to be confrontational and were famous for their oratorical skills which helped them be chosen as tribal chiefs. At tribal councils, the use of oratory held an importance place. The Maori people put forth their grievances at the council meetings through the use of songs and rhetoric. These songs also spoke of the people responsible for their difficulty. All genres of Maori poetry were rhetoric. Maori poetry could be roughly grouped under ‘recited’ and ‘sung’ narratives.

While the recited poetry or songs were generally used to express group sentiments through first person singular narrative, sung songs usually had repeated melodies which were slow and intricate. The sung songs or poetry were usually reflections of an individual’s concerns. The most popular form of sung song/poetry is known as a ‘waiata’.

An example of a sung song roughly translated into English shows how these songs reflected the singer’s predicament –

“It’s a fine thing, husband, that you’ve left me!

There’s no one who wants me now.

Who was it that turned away?

I am forgotten, and put aside.”

One needs to note that the larger portion of Maori prose existent in manuscripts contains several mythological and historical narratives. In George Grey’s 19th century writing titled “Ko nga Mahinga aa nga Tupuna Maori” or Mythology and Traditions of the New Zealanders and John White’s ‘The Ancient History of the Maori’ throw light on the literature on Maori culture.

In Jane McRae’s popular work, ‘Maori Oral Tradition – He Korero no te Ao Tawhito’, the author speaks about the different themes explored in Maori literature. She says how there are several common threads one can trace between the ancient tribal stories and modern Maori writing. Amongst the popular themes in oral history, naming and taking or allocating lands or responding to attacks, replying to curses or insults are relevant. Narratives often centre on emotions like revenge, love, grief, complaint, jealousy and shame between family members. Among the popular narratives, recurrent motifs like journeys, discoveries, games or love for motherland can be found.

In Grey’s work, we see how a Ngati Rongou Maori writer says – “E hoa, he pono an t nei hanga te patupaiarehe, mai an i mua, i a Tama-te-kapua e ora ana”. Roughly translated, this means – “The fairies do exist, my friend, and they have done so since the early days, when Tama-te-kapua was alive”. Thus, showing how the Maori often believed in what they wrote in the form of legends or oral histories.

Conclusion

In Maori literature, the texts were first written down from memory or as they were dictated. These texts remain testament to a singular style of art, culture and beauty of the Maori tradition and to the colourful lives they led. These texts provided a vivid insight into the lives of the Maori people as they lived, loved and fought for their survival against the effects of the colonial powers. Today, Maoris have inherited a rich cultural heritage as some of them still continue to write about their proud history and struggle against the Pakeha [European settlers]. Published literature of reproduction, translation and interpretation of Maori tradition began with Sir George Grey’s collections of songs, narratives and says that came out in the 1850s. Since then, oral tradition remained the only mode of discussion about the Maori. From the 20th to the 21st century, Maori literature flourished beautifully. English translations of mythologies and legends were published and this period saw the publishing of some brilliant scholarly works as well. Some of these were songs by Apirana Ngata and Pei Te Hurinui.

Jones, Mervyn McLean and Margaret Orbell. When accepted as a whole in its many genres or forms, the oral tradition in Maori literature provides us with a remarkable representation of their world.

In 1853, Wiremi Maihi Te Rangikaheke of the Ngati Rangiwewehi Maori tribal group of Te Arawa wrote about the power of retention and transmission for Sir George Grey’s works. Reflecting on the Maori ability to preserve past knowledge, he noted how his ancestors were intelligent enough to preserve it over the generations by heart :

“Ko te rau o te iwi, ko te rau o te motu, tangata M ori P keh r nei, k ore i m hio ai ki te pupuri i ng k rero a ng t puna o mua ; t na m hiotanga pe he mea tuhituhi ki ng papa pukapuka. Kei Hawaiki, kei Aotea[roa] nei, he mea tuhituhi ki te papa angaana, o roto o te hinengaro, o te ng kau.          Ko te tangata M ori, mau tonu ng kupu te pupuri i te ng kau, mate atu he whakatupuranga, mau tonu iho.”

[English Translation]

Most people, most in the land, whether Maori or Pakeha people, did not know how to retain the traditions from the ancestors of old; their knowledge was of course written on the pages of book. In Hawaiki [and] here in Aotea[roa], it was etched on the head [lit. ‘skull’], within the mind [and] the heart…….The Maori people kept the words by heart forever; when one generation passed on, they were kept forever [ by the next].

Today, much beyond the perils of colonial encroachment, Maori people uphold their identity with pride by producing some of the best literature in the world. They are not only aware of their cultural brilliance but also try to sustain the essence of Maori life everyday and through their  works.

Reference

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