3 Indigenous Canada: Literature and Culture

Mr. Pratim Das

Contents 

1. Introduction
2. Brief Account of Colonial Rule
3. Residential School: A Colonial Experiment
4. Literary History of Indigenous Communities
5. Indigenous Literature of Canada: Birth of a New Genre
6. Conclusion
7. Summary
8. Reference

About the Chapter 

This module provides an introduction of the Indigenous Literature and culture of Canada. This paper also briefly discusses the colonial policy of European occupation and its effect. The main focus of this module will be the discussion of the emerging body of writing named Indigenous Literature of Canada. The discussion will assess how these different indigenous communities were deprived of their civil Rights, how their children were forced to go to schools and faced discrimination there. The module also attempts to explain why people of Indigenous communities were inspired to write and what is its significance in the context of world literature.

This module also proposes that indigenous literature plays a significant role in contemporary literary and philosophical contexts. This introduction may help the beginners find more material on indigenous literature and culture of Canada that is now an important area of Canadian literature. Such discussions can also bring new dialogue to English literature, and in spite of studying in certain disciplines, the topic will be widely discuss.

Indigenous people have lived in Canada from ancient times. They are the original inhabitants of this land and had their own social, political, economic and cultural system long before the light of European civilization reached North America.

Indigenous people of Canada are also known as Aboriginal Canadian or Indigenous Canadian. This indigenous community is basically made up of three groups and are called the First Nations, Inuit and Metis. Inuit lives mainly in the northern part of Canada. Their land is known as the Inuit Nunavat, which is the land in the Arctic region. Metis communities are mixed European and indigenous ancestry. They used to live in the Prairie Province and Ontario, but can now be found in other parts of the country too. The First Nations community was the actual inhabitants of the mainland now called Canada.

Permanent settlement, agriculture, architecture, complex social class system these are some of the important facets of Indigenous culture of Canada. But after the arrival of European, the indigenous culture started to get mixed with western culture. Met is started to get married to Europeans in the mid-17th century and formed a culture of mixed blood subsequently. But Inuit maintain a certain distance from settlers and had a limited communication with European residents. Various laws, contracts and treaties have been signed between Indigenous people and settlers in order to give those rights of autonomy, but at the end the situation remains same.

According to the census of 2012, Canada’s indigenous population is 1,673,785 or 4.9% of the national population. There are more than 600 accredited First Nations governments or bands with different cultures, languages, art and music. National Aboriginal People’s Day recognizes the culture and contribution of indigenous people in Canada’s history. People from all backgrounds of First Nations, Inuit and Metis have become distinguished figures and  they have worked as role models in the Aboriginal community and helped to shape Canadian cultural identity.

Initially, the literature of indigenous people in Canada was largely oral, which included details of their myths, legends, heroes and do on. Later, when French and English colonizer arrived, they were initiated into writing besides oral literature. The colonizers’ attitude was biased towards oral literature as they considered oral literature uncivilized and the written one civilized. However, oral tradition still exists among in many indigenous communities for sharing expression and knowledge. But before getting into the details of this indigenous literature, let us take a look at the series of events, which influenced aboriginal people to write their own literature.

Brief Account of Colonial Rule

Along with the arrival of Christopher Columbus in Caribbean islands in 1492, the European so called civilized society was introduced to a new continent named North America. But the Europeans are not the first inhabitant of this newly discovered land. In fact several indigenous communities lived in this land long before the arrival of European colonizer. The European settlers don’t have much idea about this indigenous culture and along with it they have disdain for another’s culture. They considered themselves and their culture superior. On the other hand they also denied the rights of these indigenous communities upon on this land and considered it as free land. They used to refer it as terra nullius, a Latin name means, the land that has no owner. In 1763, a historical and royal declaration was made where King George III was declared the lord of North America and the reason was England’s victory in seven years of war with France. Surprisingly in this Royal Proclamation the mention of Indigenous people can be found as the proclamation clearly states that the aboriginal title do exists in this new continent and the lands belong to them.

Between 1871 and 1921, in these fifty years many agreements on land rights were signed among Indigenous communities and settlers. This treaty secured the rights of settlers and peoples of indigenous community on the continent. However, in many cases these people have been deceived. Initially, the terms of those agreements were discussed verbally with the leaders of indigenous groups and later they were written in English. Sometimes these agreements were intentionally distorted in written agreement and constrained their rights of land usage. Even for the sake of their own interests some treaties were altered and ignored when some of the regions are settled without any treatise. If we take a closer look at the subsequent events, we can clearly understand how Europeans deprived these indigenous people from their rights. The Indian Act of Canada (1876) was an instance of that.

The Indian Act (1876) of Canada had impaired the rights of the Indigenous peoples and crippled them in a way. Though, the act has been amended many times, but it is still applicable today for the Indigenous people. With the help of this act the government also controlled some of the religious and cultural practices, such as the sun’s dance or potlatch were completely banned. This Act somehow helped the Government as they always wanted to monitor the life of indigenous people by establishing good relations with the people and wanted to introduce European governance and values among Indigenous peoples. For example, the ban on Sun Dance and potlatch is one of the instances of government’s control over their lives.

The government programs against Canadian indigenous communities have formulated a suicide policy, which is often described by critics and scholars as a cultural genocide1 (CANLITGUIDES ONLINE). Among these, the most prominent one is to establish church- run residential schools.

 Residential School: A Colonial Experiment

Residential school system has removed Indigenous children from their families and their main objective was the spread of western and Christian thinking among them. The policy was taken in a very well planned way to eliminate the indigenousness in the child, according to some critics which can be referred as Cultural genocide. The policy of establishing the church run residential school was initially part of government’s assimilative policy2 (RESIDENTIAL SCHOOLS ONLINE). Initially these residential schools were opened by the Catholic missionaries and their objective was something different. The first residential school was established in New France. Even initially indigenous leaders also thought that these schools might be able to change their condition as they hoped that missionary residential school with its western education system would help their next generation to fight for the survival of their own community. According to Government these schools were introduced to turn indigenous people economically self-sufficient, but their main objective is something different. The government developed a policy of religious conversion through residential school and the plan was disintegrate the next generation of indigenous people from their own roots. Besides, from the very beginning the government wanted to shift the responsibility of these schools from their own hand to church. The residential schools adopted a system of half-day school and the work for the rest of the day. However, according to schools, it was claimed that following such a system will make the students economically self-sufficient. But the main reason was something else. As government denies the responsibility of these residential schools, funding becomes a matter of concern for these schools and children’s labour started to be regarded as the financial aid for the school.

Residential schools have created serious cultural, psychological and social impact in indigenous communities.

• http://canlitguides.ca/canlit-guides-editorial-team/an-introduction-to-indigenous-literatures- in-canada/colonial-history/
•  https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/residential-schools/

Even the exchange of indigenous knowledge and culture was forbidden in these schools and children are forced to experienced physical, psychological, and sexual abuse and they don’t have right to speak their own mother tongue. In Joseph Boyden’s Novel “Three Day Road” presents a perfect picture of the horrific situations in these residential schools. These schools used to estranged children from their roots and used to educate them in western manner. At these schools, these children were brutally tortured. They were frequently abused by instructors both psychologically, physically, and sexually. In addition the inhuman condition and unhealthy environment at the schools was responsible for the high child death and ill health of children. Though, most of these residential schools have closed in the later 1960s.

Literary History of IndigenousCommunities 

Indigenous literature in Canada collected its material from long history of colonialism, history that has been recognized only by the mainstream Canadian community much later. Colonial rule separated indigenous people from their roots, they have been robbed of their language rights and their tradition was excluded. But despite having so many obstacles indigenous writers began publishing their own writings in the nineteenth century. Among them, the narratives of George Copway, George Henry are most notable. These narratives were non-fictional in nature and till now those were considered as the most major work in Indigenous literature. In addition, the writings of Joseph Brant and along with Métis leader Louis Riel are considered to be some of the most significant books of indigenous literature and the content was political.

But the first creative writer of indigenous origin, who was able to include himself among the mainstream literary circles, was a female. Her name was E. Pauline Johnson. She belonged to Mohawk community and her father was chief of that group. In 1829 her poems are added for the first time in public reading and later on her poems were included in early anthologies. However, she faced several criticisms from modernist poets because they felt that her poems are very sentimental. But it cannot be denied that Johnson had a great concern about Indigenous issues and influence on Indigenous writers.

 Indigenous Literature of Canada: Birth of a New Genre

While it is true that indigenous literature existed in Canada long ago, but like other aboriginal literature or indigenous literature it was also in mostly oral tradition or in folklore. During the sixties, several major political incidents influenced indigenous people to come under one umbrella. By the 1960s, these native residents lacked many privileges offered by the government, which were then used by Canadian citizens. Indigenous people formed their own political organizations in order to fight for their own right which still exist. Such as the National Indian Brotherhood which was established in 1967 and later adopted the name of Assembly of First Nations in 1985. One of the main objectives of these organizations was the abolition of this Indian act.

But, the birth of Indigenous literature of Canada as a new genre happened after the 1969, when department of Indian Affairs presented a paper in parliament named The White Paper. The main objective behind introducing such a paper was the abolishment of all existing acts including the Indian Act. Along with it the policy also proposed the abolition of “Indian Status” (The White Paper, 1969). The protest against the White Paper, officially known as the Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy3, was tremendous (HISTORICA CANADA ONLINE).The White Paper received backlash from various organizations including National Indian Brotherhood. Many responded by saying that this White Paper is actually a deliberate attempt of Government to eliminate the previous commitments. In his article Canadian Native Literature and the Sixties, Hartmut Lutz mentioned this troubled  time of 1960s. According to him 1960 was a very important year for indigenous people of Canada. The struggle of native people for reclaiming their own identity was an important event of history. He clearly said in his article-

“1960 was “bread and butter” years for Canada’s Indigenous population, “both in the physical and in the ideological sense. Confronted with stifling conditions, Native people struggled hard to retain/reclaim their identity” (Lutz,168)

This project of reclaiming identity includes reclaiming stories, both traditional stories and autobiography.

The autobiographical works of Maria Campbell and Anthony Apapark Thrasher introduced mainstream readers with a new kind of narrative about colonial rule. In his book The Unjust Society (1969) a fundamental book for Native cultural nationalism, Harold Cardinal too responded against government policy, where he said Indian people have become impatient now by being deceived. In his book, he strongly urged for Indian people to restore their rightful place in Canadian heritage and society.

1.  https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/the-white-paper-1969

From the 1960’s, the literature of this indigenous people started reaching to the ordinary people. Some of the major political events of 1960s were largely responsible for the emergence of Indigenous literature of that time. But it would be wrong to think that indigenous literature flourished only after the 60’s and it did not exist before. The true fact is indigenous people engaged themselves in writing literature of their own much earlier. Campbell’s Halfbreed (1973) and Thrasher’s Thrasher…Skid Row Eskimo(1976) is most important publication which worth a special mention.

Besides, Jeannette Armstrong’s Slash (1985) and Beatrice Culleton Mosionier’s In Search of April Raintree (1983), these two powerful novels revealed the ideas which had been forcefully imposed on Indigenous community by the settlers.

But it would be wrong to say that only indigenous people raised their voice against these issues of aboriginal life. People from the non-indigenous community too expressed their solidarity towards them. For instance, non-Indigenous playwright George Ryga’s play The Ecstasy of Rita Joe can be mentioned. It is considered the first play by a non-indigenous author to address the issues of colonial times and aboriginal life. On 23 November 1967, the play was first staged in Vancouver Girls and directed by George Bloomfield. Even it was included in a project called Rethinking Canada and Its History and People. Lutz states in reference to his opinion about the play that, the play spreads a certain consciousness among white people as well as among natives.

The native people had witnessed how an author, who does not belong from their community, portrays their situation. This play has shown that native actor can play successfully in the mainstream stages.

The play was able to create a buzz at that time for some of its path breaking and revolutionary features. Like it was the first play of Canada in which an actor from Indigenous community on stage telling a story about his or her own people in a major theatre in Canada for the first time.

This play had a major influence on Canadian Indigenous dramatists like Tomson Highway, Marie Clement, and Daniel David Moses, as well as it also has influence upon Indigenous actors, directors, and theatre companies. Although, Ryga belongs to a non-Indigenous community, but still he decides to represent the voice of the indigenous community, their aspirations, protests etc. which had been largely ignored in mainstream literary circles. The success of his play prompted many Indigenous writers in following his footsteps. Thomas King’s novel Green Grass, Running Water was the first indigenous novel, which was nominated for the Governor General of Fiction. In fact he was the first writer among indigenous people to receive such an honour. The nomination of Eden Robinson’s Monkey Beach for the 2000 Governor General Award and The Gillar Prize was another milestone in the history of indigenous literature. The success of writers like King and Robinson gave rise to indigenous literature and secured a place for them in mainstream.

But along with this writing, there were literature of various indigenous groups which were mostly exists in oral tradition. Later, the attempt was made to record these stories in written form. The Legend of the Hand of the Medicine Man or The Invisible One these are some of the major name of Mi’kmaq oral stories, which have been later rendered into written form. Another instance is the Glooscap, who is a cultural hero of Mi’kmaq literature. This character can be found in many Mi’kmaq poems such as in poetry of Rita Joe. Even in Lorne Simon’s novel, Stones and Switches we get the mention of this character.

Among the indigenous writings the literature of Mohawk, Anishinabee, Ojibiway and cree community worth a special mention. Literary figures, such as Beth Brant, Peter Blue Cloud, Richard Wagamese, Drew Hayden Taylor and Tomson Highway are some of the prominent name of Indigenous literature of Canada.

In addition to writing, Indigenous people also engaged themselves in their own publishing business and take an initiative to do something experimental in the field of publishing. The contribution of these publishing companies is no less in the emergence of indigenous literature. These alternative publishing companies took special initiative to promote Indigenous writing. Indigenous-owned publishers like Theytus and Keged once are quite a few names among them.

 Conclusion

In conclusion it can be said that the recent emergence of Indigenous Literature in Canada had was made possible due to many reasons. The growing literacy among the indigenous people, publishing opportunities, reception from critics, these are some of the key factor behind the rise of Indigenous Literature. The diversity of contemporary work of indigenous people is significant. In a nutshell it can be said that diversity and plurality of Indigenous cultural heritages had a major contribution in indigenous literature as it has strong influence over contemporary writing.

 Summary

In this module we have talked about the Indigenous people of Canada and their literature. We also have discussed their literature as expression of their culture. We have tried to understand the role of colonialism, which worked as a major factor to influence indigenous literature. We have discussed the details of the deprivation and cheating of indigenous people, which have happened repeatedly on the pretext of various political acts. This discussion included the struggle of the indigenous people to create their own identity and how literature becomes a tool to augment their struggle. We have also discussed briefly the long literary history of indigenous people and how such New Writings in English is emerging as a new genre, which carries immense relevance in the context of World literature.

References:

• Crow, Rosie Red. Aboriginal Perspectives: The Oral Tradition. Learnalberta.ca. 2004. Published.
• Eigenbrod, Renate; et al. Aboriginal Literatures in Canada: A Teacher’s Resource Guide A Teacher’s Resource Guide, An Anthology of Canadian Native Literature in English, edited by Daniel David Moses and Terry Goldie, 2003.Published.
• Fee, Margery. Upsetting Fake Ideas: Jeannette Armstrong’s Slash and Beatrice Culleton’s April Raintree. Vancouver. Canadian Literature, 1990.Print.
• Fiamengo, Janice Anne. The Woman’s page: Journalism and Rhetoric in Early Canada.1st ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2008. Print.
• Gerson, Carole. The Most Canadian of all Canadian Poets: Pauline Johnson and the Construction of a National Literature. Vancouver. Canadian Literature,1998. Print.
• Grant, Agnes. Contemporary Native Women’s Voices in Literature. Vancouver. Canadian Literature, 1990. Print.
• Lutz, Hartmut. Canadian Native Literature and the Sixties: A Historical and Bibliographical Survey. Vancouver. Canadian Literature, 1997.Print.
• Ryga, George. The Ecstasy of Rita Joe. Vancouver. Talon Books, 1970. Print.
• Shrive, Norman. What Happened to Pauline?. Vancouver. Canadian Literature, 1962. Print.
• The White Paper 1969. Indigenous Foundations. First Nations Studies Program at [the] U of British Columbia, 2009.Web. 15 Aug. 2013. (Link)
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_literatures_in_Canada
• http://canlitguides.ca/canlit-guides-editorial-team/an-introduction-to-indigenous-literatures- in-canada/literary-history