{"id":174,"date":"2019-04-26T04:39:49","date_gmt":"2019-04-26T04:39:49","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/engp02.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&p=174"},"modified":"2019-05-08T12:26:22","modified_gmt":"2019-05-08T12:26:22","slug":"john-milton-important-works","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/engp02\/chapter\/john-milton-important-works\/","title":{"rendered":"John Milton: Important Works"},"content":{"raw":"
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About the Module:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

This is a module that outlines the important works of John Milton in brief. It upholds the important literary works of John Milton, thereby portraying how these writings contributed in the contemporary society of England.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n

John Milton, who has been regarded as one of the significant figures of English literature since his days of writing, was a prolific writer, composing numerous poems, pamphlets and theo-political as well as polemical writings. Like his predecessor Shakespeare, Milton\u2019s works showcase a strong reverence for the ideas of freedom, forbearance and perseverance, thereby alluring readers, critics and academics since times immemorial. His writings often carry an essence of the Elizabethan poet, Edmund Spenser\u2019s philosophy that was derived from Plato and later, refashioned by the ideas of virtue and beauty during the Renaissance. The influence, however, could also be because both the poets wrote at a time of political crisis in England and both were extremely sensitive in nature. However, his debts are hardly notable when one takes into account the enormity of his contribution to English poetry, thereby dwelling as one of the indelible figures of English literature. Indeed, to quote Tennyson, Milton was the \u201cGod-gifted organ-voice of England\u201d.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

In this chapter, the primary aim revolves around outlining the important literary works of John Milton, thereby showcasing how these writings contributed in the contemporary society of England. Prose and poetry will be distinctly separated into two sub-sections and will be elaborated on chronologically for the benefit of the readers.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u00a0<\/strong>Prose<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n

Though Milton had written prose profusely, he himself believed that he was primarily a poet, engaged in writing prose with his \u201cleft hand\u201d while securing the right hand for his ultimate vocation of creating poetry. His prose writings were mostly polemic in nature, extremely controversial and primarily dealt with the political issues of the age. Unlike his poetry, his prose works are disorganized and aggressive in tone, sometimes studded with lengthy and complex sentences that made it difficult for the reader to comprehend. Straight-forward in style, his prose compositions lacked humor, thereby failing to appeal to a wide range of readers. However, today his prose works serve to enlighten us on the social, economical and political issues of the contemporary time and are of immense significance to scholars of humanities and social sciences.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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The first prose works written by Milton were in the form of prolusions or articles that he wrote as part of assignments during his study at Cambridge. \u201cOratio pro Arte<\/em>\u201d (1632) or \u201cOration as a substitute of Art\u201d, which was his last article written at Cambridge, elaborates on the contentment that is derived from learning and also talks about the necessity of friendship between compatible minds in academic arenas.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

It is to be mentioned here that like Spenser, Milton was writing at a time of political instability and having been rooted in England as a civilian as well as a public servant (he was appointed as the Secretary<\/em> for the Foreign Tongue in 1949), he voiced his opinions through his writings. In par with other seventeenth century intellectuals, Milton\u2019s ideologies on politics are greatly influenced by his religious views. In fact, his prose works are so fine and detailed in their construction that they can be referred to trace the history of England during the 1640s and 1650s. His Anti- Prelatic pamphlets, which were also his first prose-works in public print, vehemently argues against the crown\u2019s authority to exercise power over the church. The five anti-prelatic essays written by him are: \u201cOf Reformation touching Church Discipline in England\u201d (1641), \u201cOf Prelatical Episcopacy\u201d (1641), \u201cAnimadversions: An Apology\u201d (1641), \u201cThe Reasons for Church Government\u201d (1642) and \u201cAn Apology against a Pamphlet\u201d (1642). In \u201cOf Reformation touching Church Discipline in England\u201d, Milton, using a complex and labyrinthine language, strongly critiques the Episcopal system and its hierarchical order, thereby seeking to dismantle the authority of the monarch and reestablish the church to its egalitarian state. \u201cAn Apology against a Pamphlet\u201d was written as a response to Bishop Hall\u2019s \u201cA Modest Confutation of the Animadversions\u201d, where Hall had critiqued Milton\u2019s vitriolic remarks on episcopacy in \u201cAnimadversions: An Apology\u201d.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

After being deserted by his young wife Mary and dissatisfied with his marriage in 1642, Milton began speculating on marriage, writing tracts that argued in favor of legalizing divorce. The four tracts written on this topic are: \u201cThe Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce\u201d (1643), \u201cThe Judgment of Martin Bucer\u201d (1644), \u201cTetrachordon\u201d (1645) and \u201cColasterion\u201d (1645). Through biblical references, he tried to showcase that when a man and wife are incompatible, it was better to part ways. However, in the seventeenth century, marriage was perceived as a holy bond and his radical perceptions on divorce were criticized by the contemporary society for inducing immorality.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

One of the most significant of Milton\u2019s prose works is Areopagitica; A speech of Mr.<\/em> John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicenc\u2019d Printing, to the Parliament of England <\/em>(1644). It is a polemical prose that urged the parliament to revoke the \u201cLicensing order\u201d of 16th June, 1643. As an ardent supporter of free speech, Milton condemned the order as it aimed to bring the earlier independent publishing under the authority of the government. His unforgettable and passionate plea is echoed in the following extract:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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\u2026And yet on the other hand, unless wariness be used, as good almost kill a man as kill a good book; who kills a man kills a reasonable creature, God\u2019s image; but he who destroys a good book, kills reason itself, kills the image of God as it were in the eye. Many a man lives a burden to the earth; but a good book is the precious life-blood of a master spirit; embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Areopagitica<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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Soon after that in 1644, the Puritan education reformer Samuel Hartlib requested Milton to give his perceptions on education. To this, Milton wrote \u201cOf Education\u201d (1644) in the form of a letter to Hartlib, where he stressed that the purpose of learning is primarily \u201cto repair the ruins of our first parents by regaining to know God aright\u201d. He also outlined the importance of harking back to the ancient Greek and Roman authors. Milton, aware of the turbulent times and the ongoing civil war, also recommended heavy, military training for the youths aged between twelve and twenty-one.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Another of Milton\u2019s remarkable work is Eikonoklastes<\/em> (1649) which was written in order to refute Eikon Basilike<\/em>, a spiritual autobiography that is credited to the executed King Charles I of England. In fact, Milton was appointed as The \u201cSecretary for the Foreign Tongue\u201d and commissioned to pen down a suitable reply to the autobiographical text. In Eikonoklastes<\/em>, Milton engages in shattering the image of King Charles I as portrayed in the autobiography by showcasing the hypocritical nature of the monarch. It was a polemical and radical tract as it not only critiqued King Charles I but also questioned all monarchical systems that wield the power to enslave, punish, torture or exploit its population. Again, soon afterward, Milton wrote \u201cA Defense of the People of England\u201d (1652) as a rebuttal to Salmasius\u2019 \u201cDefense of the King\u201d.\u00a0In the later years, Milton\u2019s <\/span>History of Britain<\/em> (1670) was published. The prose work, which is said to be unfinished, portrays Milton\u2019s thorough knowledge on the history of England and also reflects on his extensive reading. He chalks the history of the Anglo-Saxon period by studying the works of Bede as well as Geoffrey of Monmouth. He also studied <\/span>Holinshed\u2019s Chronicles <\/em>and chronicles provided by William Camden. Thus, what can be perceived is that Milton\u2019s oeuvre of prose works can be used to decode the contemporary social, economic and political sphere.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Poetry<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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John Milton is undoubtedly one of the most revered poets in English literature, best remembered for the religious and classical strain embedded in his works. Writing about the enormity of Milton\u2019s capabilities as a poet, Matthew Arnold remarks: \u201cNature formed Milton to be a great poet\u201d. A Puritan- Classicists in temperament, Milton derived his inspiration from Greek dramatists like Sophocles, the Latin poet Virgil and of course, Homer, for like Milton, Homer too was blind and perceived events through the mind\u2019s eye. Even though he had specialized in implementing the style of blank verse (which has since then, been referred to as the \u2018Miltonic verse\u2019 or \u2018Miltonic epic\u2019), he had also composed incredible sonnets, elegies, odes, masque, among others. He has even succeeded as a metrist, with grace and exactness marking all his metres.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Milton began writing poetry as early as during his study at Cambridge. On 25th December, 1629, Milton composed his first remarkable piece of ode titled \u201cOn the Morning of Christ\u2019s Nativity\u201d. Revolving around the significance of the incarnation of Christ and how the dominance of pagan powers were overthrown, this poem showcases the poet\u2019s imagination and upholds his poetic concerns, thereby serving as a precursor to Paradise Lost<\/em>.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Shortly afterward, \u201cOn Shakespeare\u201d was composed in 1630 by Milton and then published in 1632 in the Second Folio of Shakespeare\u2019s plays. Composed of sixteen lines and initially titled \u201cAn Epitaph on the Admirable Dramaticke Poet, W. Shakespeare\u201d, this poem proposed that no monumental structure was needed to pay respect to Shakespeare as he had created an immortal memorial for himself through his literary works. Quite interestingly, it is written in iambic pentameter and further divided into heroic couplets, a type not usually seen in Milton\u2019s poetry.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

At around the same time in 1632, \u201cL\u2019 Allegro<\/em>\u201d and \u201cIl Penseroso<\/em>\u201d was composed. Pastoral in essence, these companion-poems complement each other as it explores the contrasting states of the human psyche. Often considered to be a pastoral lyric poem, \u201cL\u2019 Allegro\u201d focuses on the importance of being joyful and the necessity of celebrating on a spring day. Quite contrastingly, in \u201cIl Penseroso\u201d, Milton condemns merriment by calling it \u201cdeluding joyes\u201d and embraces melancholy, stating that unhappiness and dejection was essential for the enrichment of human experiences.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

It was in 1634 that Milton composed Comus<\/em>, subtitled \u201cA Masque Presented at<\/em> Ludlow Castle, 1634<\/em>\u201d that showcases the Puritan sensibilities of Milton in full bloom. A masque written in lyrical blank verse and often considered to be a prelude to Paradise Lost<\/em>, Comus <\/em>was Milton\u2019s first dramatic representation of the contention between good and evil, a theme that would recur in his later literary masterpieces. The plot of this allegorical story revolves around a virtuous Lady who gets separated from her brothers in the woods after being led by Comus, an evil spirit in the guise of a villager. However, the Lady restrains from all sensual temptations and is rescued by the Attendant Spirit and the river nymph Sabrina for her chastity.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Then, in 1638, Milton published \u201cLycidas\u201d, a pastoral elegy that was written to memorialize his dear friend from Cambridge, Edward King who had drowned while travelling to Ireland. The sudden death of his friend devastated Milton and the awareness than death can arrive anytime, wiping away one\u2019s accomplishments, pained him significantly. Beneath the apparent lament on his friend\u2019s death, the poem upholds Milton\u2019s own suffering on the realization that death can cripple all of human achievements and aspirations. However, true to the Puritan temperament, Milton acknowledges that the ultimate bliss lies in submitting to the will of the Almighty, and the ultimate satisfaction lay in the realms of heaven. Though the poem is lyrical in tone, it lacks spontaneity, with uneven rhyme pattern and stanza sequence. The following lines will showcase the passionate tone embedded in Milton\u2019s elegy:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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Ay me! Whilst thee the shores and sounding seas<\/p>\r\n

Wash far away, - where\u2019er the bones are hurled,<\/p>\r\n

Whether beyond the stormy Hebrides<\/p>\r\n

Where thou perhaps, under the whelming tide,<\/p>\r\n

Visit\u2019st the bottom of the monstrous world;<\/p>\r\n

Or whether thou, to our moist vows denied,<\/p>\r\n

Sleep\u2019st by the fable of Bellerus old,<\/p>\r\n

Where the great vision of the guarded mount<\/p>\r\n

Looks towards Namancos and Bayona\u2019s hold\u2026<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

During the post-Elizabethan era, it was Milton who wrote a few significant sonnets and revived the trend of sonnet writing. \u201cOn His Having Arrived at the Age of Twenty-Three\u201d (1632) is one of Milton\u2019s earliest sonnets (written at Cambridge) where he seeks to nurture his talents and be a faithful disciple of God. He also wrote a few sonnets on the political and social crisis of the times, like \u201cOn the Late Massacre in Piedmont\u201d (1655). However, considering sonnets, Milton is best remembered for his heart rending composition, \u201cOn His Blindness\u201d. Written in 1655 when he was turning blind, the Petrarchan sonnet upholds the poet\u2019s struggle to understand his fate and the will of God in turning him blind. Being a devout Puritan, the poem portrays that the greatest service to God lies in embracing His Will and surrendering to God. The sonnet captures the poet\u2019s journey from disillusion to enlightenment, ending with the restoration of faith in the will of Almighty. The following lines from this brilliant sonnet will showcase Milton\u2019s unwavering faith in God:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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\u2026I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent<\/p>\r\n

That murmur, soon replies, \u201cGod doth not need<\/p>\r\n

Either man\u2019s work or his own gifts. Who best<\/p>\r\n

Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state<\/p>\r\n

Is kingly: thousands at his bidding speed,<\/p>\r\n

And post o\u2019er land and ocean without rest;<\/p>\r\n

They also serve who only stand and wait.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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It was only after the Restoration of monarchy in 1660 that Milton recoiled into his private life and indulged in focusing on the grand narrative that he had always aspired to write. Though he had begun writing it in 1658, Paradise Lost<\/em> attained its full form much later and was published in the form of ten books in 1667. The epic poem was composed at a time when Milton had gone completely blind. In fact, it was his third wife Elizabeth Minshull who penned down while Milton dictated the orally composed epic. Even though Milton was influenced by the Arthurian legends shrouding British history, he selected the biblical theme for his grand composition as it would provide him with a universal narrative for employing the ideas of creation of the world, liberty, freedom and the ultimate power of God. To quote his own words, he aspired to \u201cassert eternal providence\/ And justify the ways of God to men.\u201d<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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Written as an epic poem in the form of a blank verse, Paradise Lost<\/em> evokes the biblical narrative of the \u2018Fall of Man\u201d which showcases how God\u2019s first human creations, Adam and Eve disobeyed their Father by falling prey to the temptations of Satan (in the guise of a snake), and how they were expelled from the Garden of Eden, or Paradise. Milton\u2019s primary objective was to showcase the consequences of \u201cMan\u2019s First Disobedience\u201d and in this process, uphold the importance of submitting to the will and grace of God. The poem also captures the biblical story of how Satan or Lucifer was defeated and banished to hell or Tartarus. In fact, Paradise Lost<\/em> captures the ethos of the Puritan age so accurately that it has been referred to as \u201cthe dream of a Puritan fallen asleep over his Bible.\u201dThe following section will provide a brief summary of the twelve books of Paradise Lost:<\/em><\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u201cBook I\u201d: The epic poem begins in the lake of Fire in Hell, where Lucifer and his rebel angels have fallen after being expelled from Heaven by God. However, in spite of the abominable suffering, Lucifer\u2019s spirit is not defeated as he rises from the lake and addresses the rebel angels from the Pandemonium. Aided by his devout followers Mammon and Beelzebub, he seeks to take revenge by poisoning the minds of God\u2019s new beloved creation, that is, mankind.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u201cBook II\u201d: The rebel angels, led by Lucifer began to debate whether they should lodge another war against the Creator or whether they should indulge in tainting mankind. However, they were not sure about the existence of the human race yet. Hence, one of them had to go back to the realms of paradise and confirm the existence of the rumored creation of God. When no one volunteered to do the task, Lucifer himself stepped up and on crossing the Hell - gate, he saw the \u201cgreat gulf between Heaven and Hell.\u201d Like Odysseus and Aeneas\u2019s journey, Lucifer faced all the dangers of the Abyss and after a tedious journey through Chaos, he reached the periphery of God\u2019s newly created material world, and later, the Garden of Paradise.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u201cBook III\u201d: In the third Book, God is seen seated with his Son (Christ) in heaven and on seeing Lucifer fly towards heaven, He foretells that Lucifer would be able to pervert mankind. However, God was willing to pardon the sins of human race if someone was willing to take the burden of Man\u2019s sins and die for it. The Son of God readily offered to die for the sins of the human race and hence he was sent to Earth as Christ, the Savior of mankind. Meanwhile, Satan pretends to be a devout angel and manages to fool the guardian angel Uriel. Uriel, unable to recognize Satan, allows him to enter Paradise.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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\u201cBook IV\u201d: On entering Paradise, Satan takes the guise of a vulture and even though he feels pity for the innocent Adam and Eve, he is also jealous of them. He visits Eve in her dream and tempts her to disobey God by eating the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge. Meanwhile, Uriel warns Gabriel, the guardian angel of Paradise, about the evil spirit that had entered in the Garden. Just about the moment when Gabriel and Satan were going to fight, a signal ushered through heaven, and Satan fled from paradise.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u201cBook V\u201d: Eve is haunted by the disturbing dream. However, Adam consoles her and tells her that she has been blessed with the ability to choose and assert her will power. Meanwhile, the omnipotent God sends the archangel Raphael who warns Adam and informs him about the presence of an evil spirit who had come to taint mankind. On Adam\u2019s query, Raphael narrates about the happenings before the creation of mankind.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u201cBook VI\u201d: Raphael elaborates on the war that Lucifer lodged against his very Creator and how after being defeated, they were banished from heaven and sent to hell.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u201cBook VII: In this book, Raphael goes on to enlighten Adam about the creation of the material world and why it was created.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u201cBook VIII\u201d: This book mainly captures Adam\u2019s speculation of his creator, God. Acknowledging the grace of the Almighty, he tells Raphael how God gave him everything that he wanted, including a companion, Eve. In return, God had asked him not to have the fruit of the forbidden tree. Raphael, after warning Adam against the dangers of falling prey to the temptations of Satan for one last time, takes his leave.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u201cBook IX\u201d: This book showcases how Satan, after returning to paradise and entering the body of a serpent, finally persuades Eve to eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. On being coaxed by Eve, Adam hesitates. However, on seeing that Eve had already eaten the fruit and had disobeyed the Creator, he decided to embrace the fate of his beloved. On eating the fruit, they immediately fall from the grace of the Almighty. The first disobedience of mankind was made.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u201cBook X\u201d: The sin of mankind is known in heaven and the Son of God is sent to earth. Adam repents his action, and urges Eve to beg for forgiveness from God. Meanwhile, Lucifer\u00a0returns to hell and while all the fallen angels were celebrating, they are turned into spineless serpents.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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\u201cBook XI\u201d: Even though the Son of God pleads forgiveness on behalf of Adam and Eve, God declares that they must leave heaven. Adam and Eve are led up to a hill and the angels tell them all that would happen until the Great flood.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

\u201cBook XII\u201d: In this last book, it is Michael who narrates the future \u2013 he described how the Son of God would be born and how he would die for the sins of the human race. He also informs Adam about the conditions of the churches in earth until the second coming of Christ. The epic ends with Adam and Eve tearfully leaving Paradise, hand in hand, and wandering off into a new world.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Much later, Milton published Paradise Regained<\/em> in 1671. Here, Satan\u2019s aspiration to tempt Jesus Christ is showcased in fairly simple style and was quite radical for the Puritan temperament. Christ here is portrayed much like a human being. However, unlike Adam, he does not succumb to the temptations of Satan, and hence emerges victorious. However, this sequel hardly surpassed the glory of Paradise Lost<\/em> as it lacked much of the dramatic and ornate style of the latter.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Samson Agonistes <\/em>(1671), which is the only notable tragic \u2013 closet drama or verse drama written by Milton, is his last significant work published. The play was published along with the epic poem Paradise Regained<\/em>. Relying heavily on Greek tragedy, the dramatic poem describes the story of Samson, the failed hero of Israel after he had surrendered to Dalilah and had been imprisoned as a captive of the Phillistines. The entire drama is said to occur within the soul of Samson and his death is projected as a victory as well as a vindication. Considering the form of this poem, the unity of time, place and action is maintained. However, the style lacks the ornate nature which was so typical of Milton\u2019s dramatic poems. In spite of the deficiencies, Samson Agonistes<\/em> is one of Milton\u2019s remarkable literary creations that capture once again, his religious temperament and his unshakable faith in the Almighty.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Hence, a careful study of Milton\u2019s works will showcase that he was a refined poet and an observant essayist with the ability to argue against the social injustices prevalent in\u00a0society.\u00a0 Though\u00a0 the\u00a0 visual\u00a0 quality\u00a0 in\u00a0 Milton\u2019s\u00a0 poems\u00a0 is\u00a0 of\u00a0 considerable\u00a0 significance,\u00a0<\/span>Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge rightly referred to Milton as \u201cnot a picaresque but a\u00a0<\/span>musical poet\u201d. Influenced by the Greek epic poet Homer, Milton, to quote Hazlitt, \u201chad a\u00a0<\/span>high standard with which he was always comparing himself, nothing short of which could\u00a0<\/span>satisfy his jealous ambitions\u201d. It was this dedication and perseverance that gradually led\u00a0<\/span>Milton to compose few of the finest works in English literature.\u00a0 Today, Milton is read widely <\/span>all over the world in English or in translations for the reason that his works are as relevant to the readers of the 21st century as it was to the readers of his times. Indeed, the timelessness of\u00a0<\/span>his works reinstates his unfathomable greatness.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
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