18 John Milton: Important Works

Ms. Antarleena Basu

About the Module:

This is a module that outlines the important works of John Milton in brief. It upholds the important literary works of John Milton, thereby portraying how these writings contributed in the contemporary society of England.

Introduction

John Milton, who has been regarded as one of the significant figures of English literature since his days of writing, was a prolific writer, composing numerous poems, pamphlets and theo-political as well as polemical writings. Like his predecessor Shakespeare, Milton’s works showcase a strong reverence for the ideas of freedom, forbearance and perseverance, thereby alluring readers, critics and academics since times immemorial. His writings often carry an essence of the Elizabethan poet, Edmund Spenser’s philosophy that was derived from Plato and later, refashioned by the ideas of virtue and beauty during the Renaissance. The influence, however, could also be because both the poets wrote at a time of political crisis in England and both were extremely sensitive in nature. However, his debts are hardly notable when one takes into account the enormity of his contribution to English poetry, thereby dwelling as one of the indelible figures of English literature. Indeed, to quote Tennyson, Milton was the “God-gifted organ-voice of England”.

In this chapter, the primary aim revolves around outlining the important literary works of John Milton, thereby showcasing how these writings contributed in the contemporary society of England. Prose and poetry will be distinctly separated into two sub-sections and will be elaborated on chronologically for the benefit of the readers.

 Prose

Though Milton had written prose profusely, he himself believed that he was primarily a poet, engaged in writing prose with his “left hand” while securing the right hand for his ultimate vocation of creating poetry. His prose writings were mostly polemic in nature, extremely controversial and primarily dealt with the political issues of the age. Unlike his poetry, his prose works are disorganized and aggressive in tone, sometimes studded with lengthy and complex sentences that made it difficult for the reader to comprehend. Straight-forward in style, his prose compositions lacked humor, thereby failing to appeal to a wide range of readers. However, today his prose works serve to enlighten us on the social, economical and political issues of the contemporary time and are of immense significance to scholars of humanities and social sciences.

The first prose works written by Milton were in the form of prolusions or articles that he wrote as part of assignments during his study at Cambridge. “Oratio pro Arte” (1632) or “Oration as a substitute of Art”, which was his last article written at Cambridge, elaborates on the contentment that is derived from learning and also talks about the necessity of friendship between compatible minds in academic arenas.

It is to be mentioned here that like Spenser, Milton was writing at a time of political instability and having been rooted in England as a civilian as well as a public servant (he was appointed as the Secretary for the Foreign Tongue in 1949), he voiced his opinions through his writings. In par with other seventeenth century intellectuals, Milton’s ideologies on politics are greatly influenced by his religious views. In fact, his prose works are so fine and detailed in their construction that they can be referred to trace the history of England during the 1640s and 1650s. His Anti- Prelatic pamphlets, which were also his first prose-works in public print, vehemently argues against the crown’s authority to exercise power over the church. The five anti-prelatic essays written by him are: “Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England” (1641), “Of Prelatical Episcopacy” (1641), “Animadversions: An Apology” (1641), “The Reasons for Church Government” (1642) and “An Apology against a Pamphlet” (1642). In “Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England”, Milton, using a complex and labyrinthine language, strongly critiques the Episcopal system and its hierarchical order, thereby seeking to dismantle the authority of the monarch and reestablish the church to its egalitarian state. “An Apology against a Pamphlet” was written as a response to Bishop Hall’s “A Modest Confutation of the Animadversions”, where Hall had critiqued Milton’s vitriolic remarks on episcopacy in “Animadversions: An Apology”.

After being deserted by his young wife Mary and dissatisfied with his marriage in 1642, Milton began speculating on marriage, writing tracts that argued in favor of legalizing divorce. The four tracts written on this topic are: “The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce” (1643), “The Judgment of Martin Bucer” (1644), “Tetrachordon” (1645) and “Colasterion” (1645). Through biblical references, he tried to showcase that when a man and wife are incompatible, it was better to part ways. However, in the seventeenth century, marriage was perceived as a holy bond and his radical perceptions on divorce were criticized by the contemporary society for inducing immorality.

One of the most significant of Milton’s prose works is Areopagitica; A speech of Mr. John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicenc’d Printing, to the Parliament of England (1644). It is a polemical prose that urged the parliament to revoke the “Licensing order” of 16th June, 1643. As an ardent supporter of free speech, Milton condemned the order as it aimed to bring the earlier independent publishing under the authority of the government. His unforgettable and passionate plea is echoed in the following extract:

…And yet on the other hand, unless wariness be used, as good almost kill a man as kill a good book; who kills a man kills a reasonable creature, God’s image; but he who destroys a good book, kills reason itself, kills the image of God as it were in the eye. Many a man lives a burden to the earth; but a good book is the precious life-blood of a master spirit; embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life.

Areopagitica

Soon after that in 1644, the Puritan education reformer Samuel Hartlib requested Milton to give his perceptions on education. To this, Milton wrote “Of Education” (1644) in the form of a letter to Hartlib, where he stressed that the purpose of learning is primarily “to repair the ruins of our first parents by regaining to know God aright”. He also outlined the importance of harking back to the ancient Greek and Roman authors. Milton, aware of the turbulent times and the ongoing civil war, also recommended heavy, military training for the youths aged between twelve and twenty-one.

Another of Milton’s remarkable work is Eikonoklastes (1649) which was written in order to refute Eikon Basilike, a spiritual autobiography that is credited to the executed King Charles I of England. In fact, Milton was appointed as The “Secretary for the Foreign Tongue” and commissioned to pen down a suitable reply to the autobiographical text. In Eikonoklastes, Milton engages in shattering the image of King Charles I as portrayed in the autobiography by showcasing the hypocritical nature of the monarch. It was a polemical and radical tract as it not only critiqued King Charles I but also questioned all monarchical systems that wield the power to enslave, punish, torture or exploit its population. Again, soon afterward, Milton wrote “A Defense of the People of England” (1652) as a rebuttal to Salmasius’ “Defense of the King”. In the later years, Milton’s History of Britain (1670) was published. The prose work, which is said to be unfinished, portrays Milton’s thorough knowledge on the history of England and also reflects on his extensive reading. He chalks the history of the Anglo-Saxon period by studying the works of Bede as well as Geoffrey of Monmouth. He also studied Holinshed’s Chronicles and chronicles provided by William Camden. Thus, what can be perceived is that Milton’s oeuvre of prose works can be used to decode the contemporary social, economic and political sphere.

Poetry

John Milton is undoubtedly one of the most revered poets in English literature, best remembered for the religious and classical strain embedded in his works. Writing about the enormity of Milton’s capabilities as a poet, Matthew Arnold remarks: “Nature formed Milton to be a great poet”. A Puritan- Classicists in temperament, Milton derived his inspiration from Greek dramatists like Sophocles, the Latin poet Virgil and of course, Homer, for like Milton, Homer too was blind and perceived events through the mind’s eye. Even though he had specialized in implementing the style of blank verse (which has since then, been referred to as the ‘Miltonic verse’ or ‘Miltonic epic’), he had also composed incredible sonnets, elegies, odes, masque, among others. He has even succeeded as a metrist, with grace and exactness marking all his metres.

Milton began writing poetry as early as during his study at Cambridge. On 25th December, 1629, Milton composed his first remarkable piece of ode titled “On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity”. Revolving around the significance of the incarnation of Christ and how the dominance of pagan powers were overthrown, this poem showcases the poet’s imagination and upholds his poetic concerns, thereby serving as a precursor to Paradise Lost.

Shortly afterward, “On Shakespeare” was composed in 1630 by Milton and then published in 1632 in the Second Folio of Shakespeare’s plays. Composed of sixteen lines and initially titled “An Epitaph on the Admirable Dramaticke Poet, W. Shakespeare”, this poem proposed that no monumental structure was needed to pay respect to Shakespeare as he had created an immortal memorial for himself through his literary works. Quite interestingly, it is written in iambic pentameter and further divided into heroic couplets, a type not usually seen in Milton’s poetry.

At around the same time in 1632, “L’ Allegro” and “Il Penseroso” was composed. Pastoral in essence, these companion-poems complement each other as it explores the contrasting states of the human psyche. Often considered to be a pastoral lyric poem, “L’ Allegro” focuses on the importance of being joyful and the necessity of celebrating on a spring day. Quite contrastingly, in “Il Penseroso”, Milton condemns merriment by calling it “deluding joyes” and embraces melancholy, stating that unhappiness and dejection was essential for the enrichment of human experiences.

It was in 1634 that Milton composed Comus, subtitled “A Masque Presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634” that showcases the Puritan sensibilities of Milton in full bloom. A masque written in lyrical blank verse and often considered to be a prelude to Paradise Lost, Comus was Milton’s first dramatic representation of the contention between good and evil, a theme that would recur in his later literary masterpieces. The plot of this allegorical story revolves around a virtuous Lady who gets separated from her brothers in the woods after being led by Comus, an evil spirit in the guise of a villager. However, the Lady restrains from all sensual temptations and is rescued by the Attendant Spirit and the river nymph Sabrina for her chastity.

Then, in 1638, Milton published “Lycidas”, a pastoral elegy that was written to memorialize his dear friend from Cambridge, Edward King who had drowned while travelling to Ireland. The sudden death of his friend devastated Milton and the awareness than death can arrive anytime, wiping away one’s accomplishments, pained him significantly. Beneath the apparent lament on his friend’s death, the poem upholds Milton’s own suffering on the realization that death can cripple all of human achievements and aspirations. However, true to the Puritan temperament, Milton acknowledges that the ultimate bliss lies in submitting to the will of the Almighty, and the ultimate satisfaction lay in the realms of heaven. Though the poem is lyrical in tone, it lacks spontaneity, with uneven rhyme pattern and stanza sequence. The following lines will showcase the passionate tone embedded in Milton’s elegy:

Ay me! Whilst thee the shores and sounding seas

Wash far away, – where’er the bones are hurled,

Whether beyond the stormy Hebrides

Where thou perhaps, under the whelming tide,

Visit’st the bottom of the monstrous world;

Or whether thou, to our moist vows denied,

Sleep’st by the fable of Bellerus old,

Where the great vision of the guarded mount

Looks towards Namancos and Bayona’s hold…

During the post-Elizabethan era, it was Milton who wrote a few significant sonnets and revived the trend of sonnet writing. “On His Having Arrived at the Age of Twenty-Three” (1632) is one of Milton’s earliest sonnets (written at Cambridge) where he seeks to nurture his talents and be a faithful disciple of God. He also wrote a few sonnets on the political and social crisis of the times, like “On the Late Massacre in Piedmont” (1655). However, considering sonnets, Milton is best remembered for his heart rending composition, “On His Blindness”. Written in 1655 when he was turning blind, the Petrarchan sonnet upholds the poet’s struggle to understand his fate and the will of God in turning him blind. Being a devout Puritan, the poem portrays that the greatest service to God lies in embracing His Will and surrendering to God. The sonnet captures the poet’s journey from disillusion to enlightenment, ending with the restoration of faith in the will of Almighty. The following lines from this brilliant sonnet will showcase Milton’s unwavering faith in God:

…I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent

That murmur, soon replies, “God doth not need

Either man’s work or his own gifts. Who best

Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state

Is kingly: thousands at his bidding speed,

And post o’er land and ocean without rest;

They also serve who only stand and wait.”

It was only after the Restoration of monarchy in 1660 that Milton recoiled into his private life and indulged in focusing on the grand narrative that he had always aspired to write. Though he had begun writing it in 1658, Paradise Lost attained its full form much later and was published in the form of ten books in 1667. The epic poem was composed at a time when Milton had gone completely blind. In fact, it was his third wife Elizabeth Minshull who penned down while Milton dictated the orally composed epic. Even though Milton was influenced by the Arthurian legends shrouding British history, he selected the biblical theme for his grand composition as it would provide him with a universal narrative for employing the ideas of creation of the world, liberty, freedom and the ultimate power of God. To quote his own words, he aspired to “assert eternal providence/ And justify the ways of God to men.”

Written as an epic poem in the form of a blank verse, Paradise Lost evokes the biblical narrative of the ‘Fall of Man” which showcases how God’s first human creations, Adam and Eve disobeyed their Father by falling prey to the temptations of Satan (in the guise of a snake), and how they were expelled from the Garden of Eden, or Paradise. Milton’s primary objective was to showcase the consequences of “Man’s First Disobedience” and in this process, uphold the importance of submitting to the will and grace of God. The poem also captures the biblical story of how Satan or Lucifer was defeated and banished to hell or Tartarus. In fact, Paradise Lost captures the ethos of the Puritan age so accurately that it has been referred to as “the dream of a Puritan fallen asleep over his Bible.”The following section will provide a brief summary of the twelve books of Paradise Lost:

“Book I”: The epic poem begins in the lake of Fire in Hell, where Lucifer and his rebel angels have fallen after being expelled from Heaven by God. However, in spite of the abominable suffering, Lucifer’s spirit is not defeated as he rises from the lake and addresses the rebel angels from the Pandemonium. Aided by his devout followers Mammon and Beelzebub, he seeks to take revenge by poisoning the minds of God’s new beloved creation, that is, mankind.

“Book II”: The rebel angels, led by Lucifer began to debate whether they should lodge another war against the Creator or whether they should indulge in tainting mankind. However, they were not sure about the existence of the human race yet. Hence, one of them had to go back to the realms of paradise and confirm the existence of the rumored creation of God. When no one volunteered to do the task, Lucifer himself stepped up and on crossing the Hell – gate, he saw the “great gulf between Heaven and Hell.” Like Odysseus and Aeneas’s journey, Lucifer faced all the dangers of the Abyss and after a tedious journey through Chaos, he reached the periphery of God’s newly created material world, and later, the Garden of Paradise.

“Book III”: In the third Book, God is seen seated with his Son (Christ) in heaven and on seeing Lucifer fly towards heaven, He foretells that Lucifer would be able to pervert mankind. However, God was willing to pardon the sins of human race if someone was willing to take the burden of Man’s sins and die for it. The Son of God readily offered to die for the sins of the human race and hence he was sent to Earth as Christ, the Savior of mankind. Meanwhile, Satan pretends to be a devout angel and manages to fool the guardian angel Uriel. Uriel, unable to recognize Satan, allows him to enter Paradise.

“Book IV”: On entering Paradise, Satan takes the guise of a vulture and even though he feels pity for the innocent Adam and Eve, he is also jealous of them. He visits Eve in her dream and tempts her to disobey God by eating the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge. Meanwhile, Uriel warns Gabriel, the guardian angel of Paradise, about the evil spirit that had entered in the Garden. Just about the moment when Gabriel and Satan were going to fight, a signal ushered through heaven, and Satan fled from paradise.

“Book V”: Eve is haunted by the disturbing dream. However, Adam consoles her and tells her that she has been blessed with the ability to choose and assert her will power. Meanwhile, the omnipotent God sends the archangel Raphael who warns Adam and informs him about the presence of an evil spirit who had come to taint mankind. On Adam’s query, Raphael narrates about the happenings before the creation of mankind.

“Book VI”: Raphael elaborates on the war that Lucifer lodged against his very Creator and how after being defeated, they were banished from heaven and sent to hell.

“Book VII: In this book, Raphael goes on to enlighten Adam about the creation of the material world and why it was created.

“Book VIII”: This book mainly captures Adam’s speculation of his creator, God. Acknowledging the grace of the Almighty, he tells Raphael how God gave him everything that he wanted, including a companion, Eve. In return, God had asked him not to have the fruit of the forbidden tree. Raphael, after warning Adam against the dangers of falling prey to the temptations of Satan for one last time, takes his leave.

“Book IX”: This book showcases how Satan, after returning to paradise and entering the body of a serpent, finally persuades Eve to eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. On being coaxed by Eve, Adam hesitates. However, on seeing that Eve had already eaten the fruit and had disobeyed the Creator, he decided to embrace the fate of his beloved. On eating the fruit, they immediately fall from the grace of the Almighty. The first disobedience of mankind was made.

“Book X”: The sin of mankind is known in heaven and the Son of God is sent to earth. Adam repents his action, and urges Eve to beg for forgiveness from God. Meanwhile, Lucifer returns to hell and while all the fallen angels were celebrating, they are turned into spineless serpents.

“Book XI”: Even though the Son of God pleads forgiveness on behalf of Adam and Eve, God declares that they must leave heaven. Adam and Eve are led up to a hill and the angels tell them all that would happen until the Great flood.

“Book XII”: In this last book, it is Michael who narrates the future – he described how the Son of God would be born and how he would die for the sins of the human race. He also informs Adam about the conditions of the churches in earth until the second coming of Christ. The epic ends with Adam and Eve tearfully leaving Paradise, hand in hand, and wandering off into a new world.

Much later, Milton published Paradise Regained in 1671. Here, Satan’s aspiration to tempt Jesus Christ is showcased in fairly simple style and was quite radical for the Puritan temperament. Christ here is portrayed much like a human being. However, unlike Adam, he does not succumb to the temptations of Satan, and hence emerges victorious. However, this sequel hardly surpassed the glory of Paradise Lost as it lacked much of the dramatic and ornate style of the latter.

Samson Agonistes (1671), which is the only notable tragic – closet drama or verse drama written by Milton, is his last significant work published. The play was published along with the epic poem Paradise Regained. Relying heavily on Greek tragedy, the dramatic poem describes the story of Samson, the failed hero of Israel after he had surrendered to Dalilah and had been imprisoned as a captive of the Phillistines. The entire drama is said to occur within the soul of Samson and his death is projected as a victory as well as a vindication. Considering the form of this poem, the unity of time, place and action is maintained. However, the style lacks the ornate nature which was so typical of Milton’s dramatic poems. In spite of the deficiencies, Samson Agonistes is one of Milton’s remarkable literary creations that capture once again, his religious temperament and his unshakable faith in the Almighty.

Hence, a careful study of Milton’s works will showcase that he was a refined poet and an observant essayist with the ability to argue against the social injustices prevalent in society.  Though  the  visual  quality  in  Milton’s  poems  is  of  considerable  significance, Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge rightly referred to Milton as “not a picaresque but a musical poet”. Influenced by the Greek epic poet Homer, Milton, to quote Hazlitt, “had a high standard with which he was always comparing himself, nothing short of which could satisfy his jealous ambitions”. It was this dedication and perseverance that gradually led Milton to compose few of the finest works in English literature.  Today, Milton is read widely all over the world in English or in translations for the reason that his works are as relevant to the readers of the 21st century as it was to the readers of his times. Indeed, the timelessness of his works reinstates his unfathomable greatness.

References:

• Albert, Edward. History of English Literature. London: New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. Print.
• Bhattacharya, Arunodoy. Studies in Select Poems: Elizabethan to Pre-Romantic. Kolkata: Books Way, 2008. Print.
• Carter, Ronald and John McRae. The Routledge History of Literature in English: Britain and Ireland. London: New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2001.
• Compton- Rickett, Arthur. A History of English Literature: From Earliest Times on 1916. New Delhi: UBS Publishers’ Distributors Pvt. Ltd., 2010. Print.
• Danielson,  Dennis,  ed.  The  Cambridge  Companion  to  Milton.  Cambridge:  New  York:
• Cambridge University Press, 1989. Print.
• Flannagan, Roy C. “A John Milton Chronology”. Macmillan, December 1997. https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~creamer/milton/chronology.html
• Hudson, W. H. An Outline History of English Literature. Delhi: A.I.T.B.S. Publishers, 2009. Print.
• Nicolson, Marjorie Hope. John Milton: A reader’s guide to his poetry. Great Britain: Thames and Hudson, 1964. Print.