20 Important Prose Writers of 17th Century

Mr. Kashif Ilyas

Introduction

James VI of Scotland succeeded Queen Elizabeth and became King James I of England in 1603. He was a believer in the divine right of kings and tried to rule without the interference of parliament as much as he could. The Thirty Years War began in 1618 and there were major disagreements between King James I and the parliament about going to war against the Catholics. The parliament wanted to go to war against them, but James I did not agree. After his death in 1625, his son, Charles I succeeded to the throne. The quarrels with the House of Commons continued. His callous treatment of the parliament and his repeated withdrawal of money from the British treasury without the parliamentary votes of supply led to the Civil War between Charles I and his supporters, who were called the Cavaliers, and the Parliamentary forces called the Roundheads in 1642. The Parliament won the war and Charles I was put on trial and executed in 1649. Oliver Cromwell, a military and political leader, became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.

The artists and writers of the time mostly sided with the royalty in the Civil War as royal patronage was an important factor for their careers. The main support for the Parliament came from urban centers, the business class and the Puritans. The Civil War caused a huge upheaval in political and religious thinking. Tracts, pamphlets and sermons were produced from the printing press in large quantities with the intellectuals of the time disputing and reasoning political and religious ideas.

Britain remained a republic from 1649 to 1660. After Cromwell’s death in 1658, the Protectorate collapsed. In 1660, Charles II returned from France, where he had fled after his father’s execution, and monarchy was restored. The restoration of monarchy led to a reaction against the Puritan manners and morals as the Cavaliers had returned from France where they had picked up French wit and gallantry. Charles II was a sensualist himself and he encouraged hedonistic tendencies in his court. This set the tone for the Court Wits who wrote witty and satiric verses on the courtly fashion of the period. George Villiers, Charles Sackville, Sir Charles Sedley and Duke of Buckingham were some of the major Court Wits.

The mood and tone of the Restoration period is best reflected in the Restoration comedy which rose to prominence at the time. Restoration comedy was witty and metropolitan. It praised city life and ridiculed the lack of sophistication of country people. The dramatists mocked middle class morals and wrote plays filled with sexual intrigues and vices. Restoration comedy appealed to a narrow audience of courtiers and aristocrats who enjoyed viewing the witty repartee of characters in a social setting they recognized. William Congreve’s The Way of the Word, George Etherege’s The Man of Mode and William Wycherley’s The Country Wife are some of the most well-known Restoration comedies of the period.

Francis Bacon

Biography

Francis Bacon was a philosopher, scientist, statesman, essayist and author. He served as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. He claimed “all knowledge as his province” and advocated a shift from the traditional learning of Scholasticism and humanism to a system based on empirical and inductive principles which formed the foundation of modern science.

Francis Bacon was born in London on 22 January, 1561. His father was Sir Nicolas Bacon, Lord Keeper of the Seal. His mother was Lady Anne Cooke Bacon, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, who was Edward VI’s tutor. Francis Bacon was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He then enrolled himself in the law program at Honorable Society of Grey’s Inn where he found the curriculum boring and old fashioned. The curriculum was based on Aristotelianism and Scholasticism while Bacon preferred the new Renaissance humanism. Bacon left school after a year to work for Sir Amyas Paulet, ambassador to France. He worked for the ambassador for two and a half years until he was forced to return to England because of the unexpected death of his father. He was left a meager inheritance which created financial troubles for him.

In 1581, Bacon became a member for Cornwall in the House of Commons. He returned to Gray’s Inn and completed his education. In 1582, he got appointed as an outer barrister. It was at this time that he wrote his first political memorandum, A Letter of Advice to Queen Elizabeth, which resulted in advancement of his political career. In 1603, Bacon was knighted after James I’s ascended to the British throne. He rose in political ranks until he became Lord Chancellor of England, one of the highest political offices of England. In 1621, Bacon was accused of corruption and impeached by the Parliament.

After the end of his political career, Bacon devoted himself to his passion, the philosophy of science. He worked hard to create new methods for the sciences with focus on empirical and scientific experiments. Bacon believed in gathering data, analyzing it and conducting experiments to observe nature scientifically. He wanted to use science as a tool for the development of humanity.

Important Works

Bacon wrote political essays during his career as a statesman. In 1597, he published a collection of his political essays. The collection was republished in 1612 and 1625 with the inclusion of more essays. Bacon’s essays are aphoristic and remarkable for their brevity. They deal with practical aspects of life and are filled with wisdom.

“Of Studies” is one of Bacon’s most important essays in the collection Essay or Counsels, Civil and Moral, published in 1625. In the essay Bacon discusses the benefits and effects of studies, arguing that studies should be balanced by experience to correct personal defects. Bacon lays down three reasons for studies: personal entertainment like reading a novel, gaining knowledge to impress others and for improving one’s proficiency and competence. He also warns that bookish knowledge is not enough to succeed in life and that it must be paired with real life experiences. Bacon further states that studies are important to improve our abilities and talents and that they make us better citizens.

Bacon’s essay “Of Revenge” is also an important essay in the collection. In the beginning of the essay, he defines revenge as the urge to avenge the wrongs and injustices done to us by others for a sort of pleasure and satisfaction. He believes that such urges do not have any place in a civilized society and that they must be outlawed. Bacon says that taking revenge on someone lowers us down to their level while pardoning him/her would make us superior to them as it takes great moral courage and magnanimity to forgive someone. Bacon argues that men usually wrong someone for their own profit or pleasure and that we cannot be angry with someone for loving themselves more than the person they wrong. On those who harm other’s for no reason, Bacon says that they are to be pitied as they are condemned to live the life of a sinner. Bacon makes some concessions if the wrongdoer cannot be punished by law. In such a case, he says that revenge is acceptable. However, he warns that the act of revenge be outside the scope of the law or else the revenge seeker would find himself culpable.

Bacon explores individuality, liberty and marriage in his essay “Of Marriage and Single Life”. The essay provides an insight into the society of the 17th century as Bacon ponders whether being single is better than getting married. He begins the essay by stating that marriage is an impediment to great achievements. According to Bacon, great works have been only achieved by men who were not married and could serve the public to the best of their ability. He then points out that those who are married would have greater concern for the future on account of their children. Bacon states that single men make the best friends, masters and servants, but they can also be hardhearted as they are not used to love and tenderness. He believes that having a family instills discipline and responsibility in a person as he would have to take care of people other than himself. In his usual objective analysis, Bacon discusses both the advantages and disadvantages of being single or married with regard to the wellbeing of both the individual and the society.

Style

Bacon is often credited for creating the modern essay, but he was in fact influenced by Montaigne. Bacon adopted the form of the essay from Montaigne and perfected it. While Montaigne’s style had been free flowing and relaxed, Bacon’s were more tense and filled with proverbs. His earlier essays were simply collection of his thoughts in a concise and pithy manner without much attention to literary beauty. But as they gained in popularity, Bacon began polishing his prose style and expanding his ideas in a more elaborate manner. He started using historical references and Latin quotes as well which enriched his essays and made them more scholarly.

Bacon is also a master rhetorician who had the ability to easily persuade the reader with strong arguments. His logic and reasoning is sound and his essays are highly stylized with judicious use of images, metaphors and similes. His writing proved that the English language could be used to present deeply philosophical and complex ideas in simple words. His sentences are highly aphoristic in nature, teeming with intelligent observations and thoughts. His sentences are always short and to the point, and his arguments in the essays are very cleverly put forward. Bacon’s diction is Latinized and he uses classical references and allusions in his essays liberally. Bacon was an experienced philosopher and statesman when he wrote these essays, and his experience and wisdom are apparent as one peruses them closely.

Sir Thomas Browne

Biography

Sir Thomas Browne was a physician and author of diverse works in the fields of science, medicine and religion. He was born on 19 October, 1605, in London. He graduated from Broadgates Hall, Oxford, in 1629. After studying medicine privately, he became an assistant to an Oxford doctor. He attended the Universities of Montpellier and Padua and graduated M.D. at Leiden in 1633. He moved to Norwich in 1637 and practiced medicine there until his death in 1682. He was knighted by King Charles II in 1671.

Important Works

Browne began his career as an author with the publication of Religio Medici in 1643, a book which started off as a journal in which he used to write his personal thoughts about the mysteries of God, nature and man. At first he only shared it among his friends, but it was printed in 1642 without his permission. An authorized version was printed an year later in 1643 and was an immediate success.

Religio Medici is primarily a book about Brown’s personal Christian faith. It is an intellectual autobiography of sorts where Browne shares his personal thoughts on not only religion, but also on such topics as predestination and martyrdom. He discourses on the concept of religious faith with the perspective of scientific skepticism. Browne presents a tolerant version of Christianity with the focus on religious faith instead of mindless rituals. He believes in divine providence and accepting that faith cannot be completely understood, he exalts the mystery of the universe.

His second book, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or Vulgar Errors was published in 1646. It dealt with superstition and misconceptions about various other subjects. His next book, Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial was published in 1658. It was a study of funeral customs influenced by the archeological discoveries near Norwich of ancient funeral urns. Browne explored the idea of death and the uselessness of rituals against death’s indomitable power. The book is considered Browne’s masterpiece, with its lush diction, powerful metaphors and elaborate rhetoric. The Garden of Cyrus, published alongside Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial, is a treatise on the history of horticulture. The book is the source of his famous idea of the quincunx. In the book he traces horticultural history from the garden of Eden to Persian gardens during the reign of Cyrus.

Style

Sir Thomas Browne’s writing style is ornate and his diction Latinized. The work is highly scholastic with Latin tags and references. The prose is solemn and sometimes obscure, but the elegance of it keeps the reader riveted. Browne was a very learned man and his writing displays his impressive knowledge of diverse fields. His books are written with meticulous research and are a treasure-trove for readers interested in arcane knowledge. His elegant style, scholarly references and his strong hold on the intricacies of the English language make him one of the most important English prose writers of the 17th century. His various works in the areas of religion, science and medicine are still relevant in the modern age.

John Donne

Biography

John Donne was born in London in 1572. His father was a tradesman and his mother was the daughter of John Heywood, an epigrammatist and interlude writer. He was educated by tutors on liberal sciences and principles of the Roman Church. The influence of Donne’s early education persisted throughout his life as even after his rejection of some of the dogmas of the Roman Church, his mind still perceived the world through the school of thought he had been trained with at a young age. He followed the philosophy of St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, often quoting them in his sermons.

1n 1584, Donne went to Oxford where he studied for three years before transferring to Cambridge. He did not take a degree from either university due to religious difficulty with the oath at graduation. He enrolled as a law student at Thavies Inn in May 1591. During the period 1587-90, Donne lived in Italy and Spain. In 1596, Donne applied for foreign service and sailed to the battle in which he witnessed the defeat of the Spanish fleet. The next year he took part in the expedition to intercept Spanish ships which inspired his poems “The Storm” and “The Calm”.

In 1602, Donne was elected as Member of Parliament. He was awarded an honorary doctorate in divinity from Cambridge University and became a Royal Chaplain at Lincoln’s Inn in 1616. In 1621, he became Dean of St. Paul’s in the Church of England. In December 1623 he suffered a nearly fatal illness. While recuperating he wrote a series of meditations on health, sickness and pain. He became a Vicar of St. Dunstan-in-the-West in 1624 and a prolocutor to Charles I in 1625. His sermons were famous across the country and read widely by the masses. Donne passed away on 31 March, 1631.

Important Works

The works of John Donne were in danger of being forgotten when the publication of Sir Edmund Gosse’s The Life and Letters of John Donne in 1899 and Sir Herbert Grierson’s two-volume edition Poems of John Donne in 1912 rekindled the interest of critics and readers. At first it was his poetry that attracted the most attention, but eventually his prose works started receiving critical acclaim as well. His essays reflect his changing ideas about love, purity and devotion. Being a nonconformist, he sought new ways to express himself and often used paradoxes to startle the reader out of his/her complacency.

Essays in Divinity

Essays in Divinity were never as popular as his Devotions or Sermons, perhaps because of their fragmentary nature and less polished style. Unlike the Devotions and Sermons which were written for publication, Essays in Divinity are private meditations. There are some eloquent passages like the prayers and the dissertation on the unity of the Church, but in other places the style is dry and dull. The work is easily Donne’s least controversial book. The first half of the book deals with the subject of the creation of the world as Donne admires the beauty of the world created by God. He talks about how all creatures in the world are a reflection of the image of God, like shimmering and transitory glass. According to Donne, we bear the image of God within our selves like medals. Death is barely mentioned and Donne avoids discussion of morbid subjects like diseases and corruption. The prayers in the book are intensely personal with Donne relating his own experiences with passages of the Bible. The book is replete with self-revelations in the midst of interpretations of the various passages. Essays of Divinity are a wonderful collection of meditative essays on the Christian faith.

The Sermons of John Donne

The Sermons of John Donne displays Donne’s knowledge of scripture, his immense learning and his interest in science and medicine. The sermons stray from Donne’s usual mystifying and obfuscating style to a plainer style for the convenience of his hearers. They are colored with Donne’s personality and there is a note of personal experiences which make them unique. Donne’s humility, trust and compassion came through the sermons which attracted more listeners.

The sermons reflect Donne’s mind and his thoughts at the time he wrote them. They reflect the course of his life and his cares and emotions. The sorrow of losing his wife and the anguish at the death of his daughter at the tender age of eighteen informs his sermons with religious resignation and hope of reuniting with them after resurrection. The grief adds a certain depth to the sermons which the sermons of other great preachers of the time lacked. The plague which struck London in 1625 is also described in one of the sermons with vivid details. The Sermons of John Donne is also an important historical text as Donne often talks about important events of the time, relating it with the passages of the scripture.

Style

Donne’s mastery of language, energetic style of writing and his sharp intellect resulted in him becoming a formidable writer of his age. Yet he was anything but consistent. His writing at his best is better than all his contemporaries, but at times the style dwindles and the ideas in his essays become obfuscated. The heavy intellectual material is balanced by Donne’s wit and imagination so that the readers never feel bogged down while reading it. In the same essay he could write like a philosopher, joke like a buffoon and write about love like a passionate lover. In him one could see God and the devil striving for mastery. The most famous preacher of his time, his sermons are a testament to his oratorical skill and prodigious grasp of language. As a preacher, Donne used to draw people from all walks of life with his powerful sermons. While the value of the rest of his prose work is mostly historical, his sermons cement his place among the greatest writers of English prose.

John Milton

Biography

John Milton was a poet, polemicist, essayist and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. He was born in London on December 9, 1608. He finished his schooling from St. Paul’s School and joined Christ’s College, Cambridge, to prepare for entering the clergy. At college, he began writing poetry in Latin, Italian and English. After finishing university, he changed his mind about joining the priesthood and started studying to prepare himself for a career as a poet. He studied both classical and modern works of science, history, philosophy, religion and literature. During this period, he composed many of his famous poems such as “On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity”, “Il Penseroso”, “On Shakespeare”, L’Allegro” and the pastoral elegy “Lycidas”.

Milton started writing political pamphlets during the English Civil War to support the Puritans and Oliver Cromwell. He wrote on the morality of divorce, populism, freedom of press and even sanctioned regicide. His powerful writing and unwavering support for the Parliamentarians earned him the position of Secretary for Foreign Languages in the Oliver Cromwell government. During this period, Milton started losing his eyesight and became completely blind by 1651. When the government of Oliver Cromwell collapsed and Charles II  was restored to the throne, Milton was arrested for being a defender of the Commonwealth. He was not imprisoned though, merely fined and released.

Milton spent the rest of his life in the country, where he completed his blank-verse epic poem “Paradise Lost” (1667) and its sequel “Paradise Regained” (1671). He also wrote the tragedy Samson Agonistes in 1671.

Important Work

Areopagitica is considered one of history’s most influential and philosophical defenses of the right to freedom of speech and expression. It is a pamphlet written in the form of a speech addressed to the Parliament, published in 1644. Milton’s Areopagitica was a response to the Ordinance for the Regulating of Printing passed by the Parliament to censor freedom of press. Milton begins the pamphlet with the example of Ancient Greece and Rome where there was no censorship of political writings. Even if some blasphemous or libelous writings were burned, it was only after the writing had already been produced. Milton argued that any writing should first be examined and refuted instead of simply prohibited. He stressed on the importance of reading and argued that God has given humans the ability to comprehend ideas and accept or reject them according to their own conscience. He further stated that even heretic books can teach us about wrongs and help us discover the way of the true.

Milton argued that licensing is a dishonor to the author, reader and the dignity of learning. Knowledge cannot be suppressed by the arbitrary judgment of the licenser and must be free of censorship. In the end of the essay, Milton stressed the importance of being open to truth and understanding as a society and not letting the press be monopolized by the government.

Style

Milton in his prose works was acutely aware of what the English language could do, and he was interested in expanding its possibilities. He was the first English writer to develop the intricacies of the language through his writings. Yet his prose style wasn’t without its shortcomings. He lacked the simple and natural style of writing that Bacon was capable of. His writing often got convoluted with repetitions and classical phrases. His diction meanwhile was clear and faultless with impressive rhetoric and oratorical skills. Writing on political and religious issues, his prose had a clear moral vision with an impassioned energy to touch the listener or reader.

Conclusion

Most of the writing of seventeenth century was written in the tense political climate of the Civil War between the Royalty and the Parliamentarians. The writers of the time were also influenced by new approaches to knowledge replacing old traditional systems of thought. Many of the writers adopted inductive reasoning in their treatises while still referring to classical works as well. A rational approach towards life and literature was developed and perfected in their work. The period witnessed exemplary writing by the likes of Francis Bacon, Robert Burton, John Bunyan and others. Bacon perfected the art of the essay and John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress and various religious tracts were read widely all over the country. Sir Thomas Browne wrote seminal texts on religion and various other areas like archeology and horticulture.

Reference

• Daiches, David. A Critical History of English Literature Vol. 1 and 2. Supernova Publishers, 2010.
• Hudson, William H.. An Outline History of English Literature. Maple Press, 2012.
• Albert, Edward. History of English Literature. Oxford, 1997.
• Grell, Ole Peter; Cunningham, Andrew. Religio Medici: Medicine and Religion in Seventeenth-century England. Scolar Press, 1996.
• Thomson, Ann. Bodies of Thought: Science, Religion, and the Soul in the Early Enlightenment. OUP Oxford, 2008.
• Preston, Claire. Thomas Browne and the Writing of Early Modern Science. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
• Anderson, Fulton. The Philosophy of Francis Bacon. Octagon Books, 1971.