11 King Arthur and Middle english prose
Dr. Mahuya Bhaumik
UNIT 1
KING ARTHUR
OBJECTIVES OF THE CHAPTER:
This module is divided into two units, the first one focussing on King Arthur and the literary tradition centring on him. It discusses the seminal influence of Geoffrey of Monmouth in the development of the Arthurian legend. This unit also discusses the other Arthurian romances and tries to focus on the gradual shift in focus from King Arthur as the central character of the romances to the other characters. The second unit deals with Middle English prose. The different didactic works, sermons and translations belonging to this prose tradition are of immense interest to the historians and philologists and forms a significant part of Middle English literature. This unit attempts to discuss the various works belonging to this category in a concise but interesting manner.
INTRODUCTION:
According to medieval romances and histories King Arthur is considered to be one of the most eminent and reputed British leaders of the late 5th and early 6th centuries. He is believed to have led the army of the British against Saxon enemies in the early 6th century. However, historical evidence of his existence is contested by several modern historians. Literary inventions and folklores are the primary sources of Arthur’s stories. The universally recognised information about the story of Arthur is his connection with Celtic tradition. In fact Arthur’s story has its origin in the branch of Celts who settled in Wales and Cornwall. Initially interest pertaining to this story was confined to local regions. It gained European recognition with the publication of Historia Regum Britanniae written by Geoffrey of Monmouth and the Arthurian romances composed by one of the greatest French romance writers, Chretien de Troyes. These are certain facts which are not debated. However, scholars are sharply divided in their opinions regarding certain other issues like whether Arthurian stories were fully developed in Celtic literature, whether Arthur really had an historical existence, whether there were Arthurian romances in French prior to Chretien and how much indebted Chretien and other French poets were to the Celtic sources.
CATEGORIES OF LITERARY TRADITIONS RELATED TO ARTHUR:
Before going deep into these queries, it is essential to take into consideration the medieval literary traditions that dealt with Arthur. The textual sources for Arthur can be divided into two categories: the pre-Galfridian texts (written before Geoffrey) and the Galfridian or post-Galfridian texts (written after Geoffrey). In the first category the earliest Arthurian references can be located in Welsh and Breton sources. All these sources concentrate on three characteristics of Arthur. He is delineated as a valiant warrior who protects Britain from diverse threats, both human and supernatural. On the one hand he relentlessly fights against the Saxons and on the other he is ruthless against the cat-monsters, dragons, giants and witches.
The pre-Galfridian texts also present Arthur as a figure of folklore and magical stories who is the leader of superhuman warriors. Another interesting point about Arthur in this tradition is a close link between the early Welsh Arthur and Annwn, the Welsh Otherworld. Though he is described to attack the Otherworldly fortresses and liberate the prisoners, there are references that his army includes pagan gods and his possessions are Otherworldly. The Galfridian or post-Galfridian texts are those written after Geoffrey and are marked by unmistakable influences of his work.
GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH:
The first narrative account of the life of Arthur is found in the Latin work Historia Regum Britanniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth. This book is a fanciful account of British kings beginning with the Trojan Brutus and ending with the 7th century Welsh king Cadwallader. Arthur is presented by Geoffrey as the king of Britain who valiantly defeated the Saxons and established an empire over Britain, Ireland, Norway, Gaul and Iceland. Certain events and elements- Uther Pendragon, the father of Arthur, Merlin, the Wizard, Guinevere, the wife of Arthur, Excalibur, the sword Arthur’s conception at Tintagel, his battle against Mordred at Camlann, his ultimate rest at Avalon- which are now integrally associated with any Arthurian story are referred to by Geoffrey in his seminal work. The narrative deals with the conception of Arthur, the death of Uther, Arthur ascending the throne in his father’s place at the age of fifteen, fighting a series of battles, creating a vast empire through his conquests, setting out once again after a gap of twelve years to further expand his empire, his return to Britain hearing the news of his throne being usurped by his nephew Modredus and getting married to his wife Guinevere, Arthur being mortally wounded in Cornwall, handing the crown to Constantine and being taken to the isle of Avalon to be treated there and never to be seen again. It is a debatable issue whether the narrative elements are Geoffrey’s own creation or inspired by Historia Brittonum and Annales Cambriae. There are also strong connections with the pre-Galfridian Culhwch and Olwen from which Geoffrey seems to have taken the themes of loyalty, honour, giants and magical creatures. However, the popularity of Geoffrey is undeniable. More than two hundred copies of his Latin work alone are expected to have survived apart from the translations. Geoffrey’s handling of diverse events and characters of the Arthurian legend have different variations in different texts. Not a single version can be considered to be canonical. However, Geoffrey’s work usually serves as the clue to the later stories and plays a pivotal role in the development of the Arthurian legend.
ARTHURIAN ROMANCE:
In the French stories we often find that the focus shifts from King Arthur to the other characters like the Knights of the Round Table. While Arthur is the centre of attention in the pre-Galfridian tradition and Geoffrey’s work, he is pushed to the side in the romances. Whereas in the earlier works Arthur is a ruthless warrior who alone possesses the capability to lead any military campaign, Arthur in the romances is a composed, dignified and sometimes feeble king. Thus he is portrayed as unable to remain awake after a feast and has to take a nap in Chretien’s Yvain, the Knight of the Lion. The genre of Arthurian romance was initiated by Chretien who added the stories of the Holy Grail and Lancelot to that of Arthur. Chretien wrote five Arthurian romances among which Erec and Enide and Cliges are basically love tales in which Arthur’s court serves as a backdrop while Yvain, the Knight of the Lion deals with Yvain and Gawain involved in supernatural adventure where Arthur is presented as a weak character. Another two significant works of the Arthurian cycle are Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart and Perceval, the Story of the Grail. The former introduces Lancelot and popularises the character of Arthur as a weakling whose wife is involved in an adulterous relationship with Lancelot while the latter introduces the Holy Grail and the Fisher King and thus reduces the importance of Arthur. So with the gradual shift in the storyline of these romances the role of Arthur as the central figure gradually faded away in continental romances.
CONCLUSION:
However, there was a revival of interest in King Arthur much later in the 19th century in the poems of poets like Tennyson and William Morris. This influence continued even in the 20th century and T.S. White’s novels The Once and Future King and Marion Zimmer Bradley’s The Mists of Avalon bear testimony to this fact.
UNIT 2
MIDDLE ENGLISH PROSE
INTRODUCTION:
The tradition of copying Anglo-Saxon prose works continued consistently in monasteries even after the Norman Conquest. The Chronicle continued and the record of the last entry in the Peterborough Chronicle was in the middle of the twelfth century. There was a gap in between which was the result of the confusions during the reign of King Stephen. Scholars have managed to draw an arbitrary line between Old English and Middle English. In between the language of the final scribe and that of his predecessor who brought the narrative up to 1132. This was the point where Anglo-Saxon historical prose came to an end. After this the progress of vernacular historical writing came to a halt. After the Norman Conquest the Norman clerics introduced Latin as the official language both for communication and maintenance of historical record. Consequently English historical prose could not evolve until the time of the Tudors. Moreover, due to the French influence, English writers also turned to rhymed verse rather than concentrating on prose. More importantly, the increase of dialectical differences in Middle English was an obstacle in the formation of a standard literary prose.
However, the tradition of prose writing continued in homiletic and devotional writing. Even after the Conquest the mode of instructing people in the vernacular continued. Since instructing common mass could be done most successfully in the dialect of the people, the decline in position of the West Saxon literary language in favour of diverse local dialects was not that prominent. Thus the Anglo-Saxon homiletic tradition and English religious prose went on flourishing with certain additions and modernizations to Aelfric’s sermons.
KATHERINE GROUP:
The sermons, translations and several didactic works which are essential parts of Middle English prose, though of little literary interest, are quite important for the philologists and the historians. The earliest writings of this category after the Norman Conquest are those titled as the Katherine Group. These include the lives of three saints, Katherine, Margaret and Juliana, a treatise discussing the advantages of virginity and the disadvantages of marriage, a homily where Wit (the informed master) is in conflict with Will (the foolish mistress) over the control of the Soul. The prose style is alliterative with rhythmic effect. It is difficult to trace the exact dates of composition of these works. However, it is assumed that these were written towards the end of the twelfth century or the beginning of the thirteenth. The main objective of these writings is the exaltation of virginity. These are never found separately; rather they always appear together in one MS, four appear together in another and three are found as a group in a third. The first three, concentrating upon saints’ lives, focus on the heroic determination and final martyrdom in order to preserve the sanctity of maidenhood.
Apart from these three the group also includes Hali Meidenhad which can be considered as a genuine endeavour to glorify virginity in contrast to the baseness associated with marriage. Logical planning and progression are absent in this writing and a single idea runs through the entire treatise. This idea is supported by two arguments- virginity is preferred by God and marriage is not associated with the kind of happiness that people expect from it. This work is saturated with the painful picture of married life which is marked by quarrels between the married couple, the pains of childbirth and the challenges of being a mother. The illustrations chosen from domestic chores, like cake burning on the hearth, calf sucking all the milk, bring home the point of the writer elaborately. Thus the author comes to the conclusion that maidenhood is a much better state which is blessed by happiness and peace. This work has strong resemblances with Ancrene Riwle but one becomes hesitant to ascribe both the writings to the same author because of the vehement opposition shown to marriage by the writer in Hali Meidenhad.
However, Sawles Warde (‘The Safeguarding of Soul’) is somewhat different both in theme and style though it is found in all the three MSS with which the Katherine Group is associated. There are only incidental references to virginity. It is basically an allegory of the house which symbolizes the body. Soul, the treasure of this house, is protected by the four cardinal virtues. The treatise is primarily a discourse between two visitors- Love of Life which is the messenger of mirth and Fear which is the messenger of death. Basically this work is an adaptation of a treatise of Hugh of St. Victor titled De Anima.
ANCRENE RIWLE:
Ancrene Riwle (“Rule for Anchoresses”) is one of the seminal works of Middle English prose which is a manual of instruction for three young girls who are would-be-anchoresses. It is a prose work written probably about 1200 and is rich in didactic and devotional material. It is also a very realistic historical document describing matters of daily life. The prose style is made interesting by the use of proverbs, anecdotes and character sketches. The source of interest of this prose work lies in its freshness of treatment and the personality of the writer which gets reflected through his work. This work is divided into eight books out of which the first one focuses on devotional and religious elements. The other books concentrate on the five senses which are considered to be the guardians of the heart, the benefits of retirement from the world, the temptations of the flesh which one should restrain from, confessions, penitence and the love of Christ. The last book centres on domestic activities like clothing, attendants, food and other trivial but interesting aspects. What makes this work more appealing is the personal quality rendered to this work. It is not meant for an unknown audience, but for three young women who were familiar with the writer. These women belonged to a reputed, affluent family of the aristocratic segment of the society and their education is also suggestive of their upper class. Lot of speculation has been made about the identity of these three sisters. Miss Hope Emily Allen referred to the granting of the Kilburn priory as a hermitage to three unmarried ladies named Emma, Gunhilda and Christina by the convent and abbot of Westminster. It is also speculated that the beneficiaries of this grant were the maids-in-waiting of Queen Maud, wife of Henry I. There are many similarities between the circumstances of these women and the three sisters referred to in Ancrene Riwle.
The popularity of this work is quite evident from its wide circulation and the number of surviving manuscripts. Versions in Latin and French also testify the earlier point. There are lots of speculations regarding the language chosen for the original writing. The original is definitely not written in Latin because the Latin version contains several errors which are largely due to the misinterpretation of the English. The proof of translation in case of French is not that obvious. It should also be remembered that the manuscripts in English date back to the late thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and were possessed by the religious houses which had unmistakable aristocratic connections. In these spheres French was the most familiar and chosen language if available. It was also lucrative as a private possession since it was a brilliant treatise on morals and an admirable guide to piety. These are probably the strongest reasons for its easy adaptation to the conditions of monastic life. However, the popularity and the position that Ancrene Riwle enjoys is largely due to the personality of the writer and the extent to which this personality affects his writing positively. His liberal and unorthodox attitude, his ability to distance himself from the conventional attitudes of the other religious writers of the Middle Ages, his remarkable qualities of mind are the strongest reasons for his popularity. His stress is always on the inward rule which focuses on piety and obedience to the commands of the conscience rather than on the external rules. He is always in favour of this inward rule and asks the sisters to follow it and thus retain purity of the heart and a clear untainted conscience. This prose work is also significant for the boldness of speech and candour. The lines like ‘men esteem a thing as less dainty when they have it often’ in context of his advice to the sisters to take communion only fifteen times a year testify the above-mentioned point. Again, the author is in an advising mood when he instructs the sisters about the utility of reading: ‘Reading is good prayer. Reading teacheth how, and for what, we ought to pray’. Sometimes, he chooses to be ironical, particularly when referring to his professional brethren: ‘Bathsheba, by unclothing herself in David’s sight, caused him to sin with her, though he was so holy a king and God’s prophet: and now, a feeble man comes forward and esteems himself highly if he have a wide hood and a close cope, and would see young anchoresses, and must needs look, as if he were of stone, how their fairness pleases him, who have not their complexion sunburnt, and saith that they may look confidently upon holy men, yea, especially such as he is, because of his wide sleeves.’ Another glorious instance of his incisive and in-depth understanding of flatterers and seducers can be traced in this passage: ‘No seduction is so perfidious as that which is in a plaintive strain; as if one spoke thus: “I would rather suffer death, than indulge an impure thought with regard of you; but had I sworn in, I could not help loving you; and yet I am grieved that you know it. But yet forgive me that I have told you of it; and, though I should go mad, thou shalt never after this know how it is with me.” And she forgives him, because he speaks thus fair, and then they talk of other matters. But ‘the eye is ever towards the sheltering wood, wherein is that I love.’ The heart is ever upon what was said before; and still, when he is gone, she often revolves such words in her thoughts, when she ought to attend diligently to something else. He afterwards seeketh an opportunity to break his promise, and swears that necessity forces him to do it; and thus the evil grows, the longer the worse; for no enmity is so bad as false friendship. An enemy who seems a friend is of all traitors that most treacherous.’ The kind of honesty and outspokenness that are reflected through this kind of writing are enough examples to prove the popularity of the writer and his work. Other important reasons for the popularity of this literary work are pertaining to its style which includes allusions of beasts, employment of interesting proverbs, illustrations related to day-to-day life and dry humour. The author’s primary objective of using animal lore is to stress upon morals and he chooses the allusions of the pelican which pierces her own breast, the cunning fox, and the eagle who keeps a precious stone called agate in its nest that has the power to keep off poisonous things. The proverbs that are used are full of wisdom: ‘the cock is brave on his own dunghill’; ‘the dog enters gladly where he finds an open door’. The illustrations are largely taken from the author’s personal observations and experiences of life: ‘Our Lord, when He suffereth us to be tempted, playeth with us, as the mother with her young darling: she flies from him, and hides herself, and lets him sit alone, and look anxiously around, and call Dame! Dame! And weep a while, and then leapeth forth laughing, with outspread arms, and embraceth and kisseth him, and wipeth his eyes.’ Among several other illustrations worth-quoting one is: ‘Reflect again thus: that if a child stumble against any thing, or hurt himself, men beat the thing that he hurteth himself upon, and the child is well pleased, and forgetteth all his hurt, and stoppeth his tears.’ There are other illustrations which have the unmistakable charm of familiarity: ‘When greedy dogs stand before the board, is there not need of a rod?’; ‘Our Lord doth to us as men do to a bad debtor; he accepteth less than we owe him, and yet is well satisfied’; ‘A small patch may greatly disfigure a whole garment.’ At times, there are echoes of the Bible: ‘The true sun in the morning-tide ascended up on the high cross for the purpose of diffusing the warm rays of his love over all’; ‘All who are in heaven shall be as swift as man’s thought now is, and as the sunbeam that darts from east to west, and as the eye openeth and shutteth.’ Another significant aspect of the style of Ancrene Riwle is the use of dry humour. One cannot miss the effect of humour while the author is making earnest request not to fall a prey to the temptations of the flesh: ‘The old woman spoke very truly, when with a single straw all her house caught fire, that ‘much cometh of little’.’ To conclude the discussion on this particular text it becomes imperative to talk a bit about Book VIII which is sometimes missing in the MSS. In this particular book the author gathers his instructions related to the physical needs of the sisters. The liberal attitude of the writer while discussing about the dress and food, the moderation, the peep into the actual life of the anchoress are diverse elements which engage the interest of the modern readers.
THE SCALE OF PERFECTION:
Walter Hilton’s prose work The Scale of Perfection is another significant document of English prose style. It debates the claims of active and contemplative life. Michael of Northgate’s Ayenbite of Inwyt (Prick of Conscience) is a translation of a thirteenth century didactic work. The translation is marked by dullness and inaccuracy. However, from the linguistic point of view, it is significant as the author’s own autograph copy is preserved. It is also considered to be a seminal text in the South-eastern, particularly Kentish dialect.
WYCLIFFE’S BIBLE:
John Wycliffe, another important prose writer of the Middle English period, was an active controversialist, politician, philosopher and reformer. He attacked certain important practices of the Church and issued a large number of pamphlets dealing with the social injustices of the time. He wrote many Latin books to support his revolutionary opinions. He is famous for the first complete translation of the Bible into English. Though the entire translation was not done by Wycliffe himself, it was done under his inspiration and influence. Nicholas of Hereford is thought to have translated part of the earlier of the two versions (completed between 1382 and 1384) and John Purvey the later (completed soon after 1388). The translation is from the Latin text of the Vulgate and does not possess much grace or life. However, it has a simplicity and pointedness that makes it appealing to the readers. Wycliffite Bible texts are considered to be the commonest manuscript literature in Middle English. It is worth mentioning here that 250 manuscripts of the Wycliffe Bible survive. These Bible translations served as the source of inspiration and reason of the Lollard movement, a pre-Reformation movement which questioned and rejected many of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.
| INFORMATION BOX
John Wycliffe:
Born: 1320, Hipswell, United Kingdom Died: December 30, 1384, Lutterworth, United Kingdom
Education: University of Oxford, Balliol College, The Queen’s College, Oxford, Merton College,Oxford
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THE TRAVELS OF SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE:
John Mandeville’s best-known book is The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. It is claimed to be an account of his supposed travels. It is a translation from a French work written between 1357 and 1371. The French work was translated into various languages, including English. Though the book is marked by incredible and fantastical travels, it is used as a reference by Christopher Columbus. The English version has a preface which introduces the author as Sir John Mandeville. He calls himself a knight and mentions that he was born and brought up in England. Recently the existence of an actual Mandeville has been denied and the real author is considered to be Jehan de Bourgogne who died in 1372. Travels is now regarded as a compilation from several popular books based on voyages, including those of Friar Odoric and Marco Polo. The book includes incredible details of the writer’s experiences in different countries. The prose style is straightforward and clear with colloquial touches here and there. It is a book marked with a distinct literary style and flavour which includes short, freely dispersed and tersely phrased narrations.
LE MORTE d’ ARTHUR:
Sir Thomas Malory’s reputation is largely dependent on his famous work Le Morte d’ Arthur which was written as late as the ninth year of the reign of King Edward IV in 1469. Almost whatever we know about Malory is contained in the preface of Caxton, the first printer of the book. Like the Travels of Mandeville, Le Morte d’ Arthur is also a compilation made from a number of French romances dealing with King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table. Malory treated his materials skilfully to suit his purpose. Malory translated Arthurian stories that existed in thirteenth century French prose (Old French Vulgate romances) and made a compilation of different tales with at least one tale from Middle English romances (the Alliterative Morte Arthure and the Stanzaic Morte Arthur). Though the sources of the book are diverse, a uniform dignity is maintained throughout. The entire book is suffused with the essence of romance and medieval chivalry. The blending of dialogue and narrative makes the writing lively and colourful. The style has a simple clarity and transparency and is full of poetic cadences. The Middle English employed in Le Morte d’ Arthur is pretty close to Early Modern English in comparison to the Middle English used in Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales. Malory himself called it The hole booke of kyng Arthur and of his noble knyghtes of the rounde table. However, Caxton chose the name of Malory for the final section of the cycle. Malory’s eight books were separated into twenty-one books by Caxton. Each one of the books was again subdivided into 507 chapters with a summary of each chapter and a colophon to the entire book. The eight tales of Malory are listed below:
- The birth and rise of Arthur: “From the Marriage of King Uther unto King Arthur that Reigned After Him and Did Many Battles”
- King Arthur’s war against the Romans: “The Noble Tale Between King Arthur and Lucius the Emperor of Rome”
- The book of Lancelot: “The Tale of Sir Launcelot du Lac”
- The book of Gareth (brother of Gawain): “The Tale of Sir Gareth”
- Tristan and Isolde: “The Book of Sir Tristrams de Lyons”
- The Quest for the Holy Grail: “The Noble Tale of the Sangreal”
- The affair between Lancelot and Guinevere: “Sir Launcelot and Queen Gwynevere”
- The breaking of the Knights of the Round Table and the death of Arthur: “Le Morte D’Arthur”
The first printing of Malory’s work was done by Caxton in 1485. There are only two copies of the original printing that are preserved in Morgan Library and Museum and John Rylands Library. Because of the popularity there were reprints with certain additions and modifications in 1498 and 1529 by Wynkyn de Worde who was the successor to the press of Caxton. There were three more editions before the English Civil War before its fading away. Later on, there was a resurgence of interest regarding this book during the Romantic age.
| INFORMATION BOX
Thomas Malory:
Born: 1405, Warwickshire, United Kingdom Died: March 14, 1471, Newgate Prison, City of London, United Kingdom
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CONCLUSION:
These prose works maintained a standard until the late fifteenth century by which time the employment of English prose both in secular and non-secular or religious writing increased. Though the development of English prose was uneven, it was a part of the natural progress of the language and its literature.
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Reference
- Anderson, Graham. King Arthur in Antiquity. London: Routledge, 2004
- Ashe, Geoffrey. “Geoffrey of Monmouth” in Lacy, Norris, The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York: Garland, pp 179-82, 1996
- Ashley, Michael. The Mammoth Book of King Arthur. London: Robinson, 2005
- Baugh, A.C. Literary History of England vol i. London, 1994
- Field, P.J.C. Malory: Texts and Sources. Cambridge: Brewer, 1998
- Fountain, David. John Wycliffe- The Dawn of the Reformation. Mayflower Christian publications, 1984
- Higgins, Ian M. Writing East. The “travels” of Sir John Mandeville. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997
- Kibler, William, Carroll, Carleton W., eds. Chretien de Troyes: Arthurian Romances. London: Penguin, 1991
- Morris, Rosemary. The Character of King Arthur in Medieval Literature. Cambridge: Brewer, 1982
- Parins, Marylyn Jackson. Sir Thomas Malory: The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge, 1995