7 Middle English Romances
Dr. Mahuya Bhaumik
INTRODUCTION:
The shift from Old English heroic poetry to medieval verse romance marks a remarkable transformation in temperament. While heroic poetry is realistic, romance is escapist in nature where characters fight either on principles or as a ritual and the primary emphasis is on the hero’s character. Customarily, the word ‘romance’ is integrally related to love story and since there are certain famous medieval romances involving palpable love elements like those of Floris and Blancheflour, Lancelot and Guinevere, it is assumed that medieval romances will always involve certain love interests. However, if we ponder over the romances of Alexander or Richard the Lion-Hearted, we will have no difficulty to understand that most of the medieval romances have no love element whatsoever. There are only a few exceptions where love story is the main theme; otherwise, even if the element of love is present in the story it is incidental as in Bevis of Hampton, or as the source of motivation for the hero’s adventure as in Guy of Warwick or is dominated by the adventurous elements as found in Erec, Yvain.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ROMANCES:
In fact, the primary material of the medieval romances is the adventure of the chivalrous knights. These are imaginary narratives involving adventures, both in prose and verse. The earlier romances are composed in verse; the prose romances came in late. The verse romances usually vary from one thousand to six thousand lines and the metres normally used are eight-syllable couplet and a variety of tail-rime stanzas. These romances are marked by lack of unity of action and less defined characters. Usually the characters are types and conform to a definite pattern. There is not much scope for making the characters individual. The hero is delineated as an ideal knight who needs to prove himself superior to the other knights and thus the poet sometimes introduces a dragon or a giant as a staunch adversary of the hero in an attempt to bring some kind of variation to the plot. Initially the romance used to cater to the taste of the aristocratic upper class.
When French was the language of the English ruling class, French romances were immensely popular in England. In fact, those which were written in England itself were also in French. This continued till the middle of the thirteenth century. The English romances came into existence only when English ousted French as the courtly language of England. Thus most of the English romances belong to the fourteenth century and are mostly translations or adaptations from the French ones.
CATEGORIES OF MEDIEVAL ROMANCES:
Medieval romance is divided into three categories- ‘Matter of France’, ‘Matter of Britain’ and ‘Matter of Rome’. This division was made by the late twelfth century trouvere Jean Bodel based on the subject matter of these romances. In Chanson des SaisnesBodel wrote:
N’ensontquetriosmateres a nul home entendant
De Freance, et de Bretaigne, et de Rome la grant.
However, there is another matter- the ‘Matter of England’ which Bodel did not specify.
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POINTS TO REMEMBER
Medieval romance was divided into three categories initially. These are:
Another Matter which is included later is Matter of England |
MATTER OF FRANCE:
The earliest amongst these matters is the ‘Matter of France’ which deals with the diverse activities of Charlemagne and his knights. Though the relationship between England and France was a sustained one and France was a storehouse of a huge collection of legends, there cannot be found an ample representation of these stories in English. The reason can be sought in the political rivalry between the two countries during the time the romances were being written in English. Moreover, the enthusiasm and appeal that the stories revolving around the French personas enjoyed in France were obviously less in England. The French chansons de geste which comprises more than one hundred poems can be categorised under three groups- geste du roi, geste de Doon de Mayence and geste de Garin de Monglane. The most popular among these is the geste du roi which is centred on Charlemagne and portrays him as the champion of Christendom who fights vigorously against the infidels. A brilliant example of this is Chanson de Roland. The epics of the second group focus on Charlemagne’s struggle with his vassals. The third group deals with the adventures and victories of William of Orange and his family members. Though all these French epics are immensely interesting, only the Charlemagne romances belonging to the first group can be found in English verses.
Apart from the late RaufCoilyear where Charlemagne incognito is entertained by a farmer, all other Charlemagne romances can be subdivided into two groups- the Ferumbras group and the Otuel group. The Ferumbras group handles those events which are mentioned in two French chansons degeste– the Destruction of Rome and Fierabras. Although there are slight variations in these two writings, these are the definite sources of the English romances. The Sowdone of Babylone describes the achievement of Laban and his son Ferumbras in sacking Rome and getting hold of the cross, the crown of thorns and the nails of the Crucifixion and sending those to Spain. The second part is a quick coverage of the incidents that are treated in a detailed manner in Sir Ferumbras. Here the army of Charlemagne, during their journey to Spain, in order to retrieve the holy relics and to punish the Saracens, encounter Ferumbras who is a twenty feet tall formidable knight. The latter is defeated by Oliver and converts into Christianity. He begins fighting for the Christian cause henceforth. On his return journey Oliver is captured by a Saracen force. The major portion of the story develops from this capture and Floripas’ (the daughter of the Sultan) falling in love with Guy of Burgundy (a Charlemagne knight). Floripas becomes instrumental in the ultimate victory of the Christians who are successfulto recover the sacred relics.Sir Ferumbras is considered to be one of the best among the English Charlemagne romances. The effectiveness of certain scenes and the consciousness of the writer make this work remarkable. It is a sheer loss thata few leaves of the manuscript in which Sir Ferumbras are preserved are lost.
There are five romances in the Otuel group. Among these only three deal with the story of Otuel in the true sense of the term. All these three narrate the same story with certain variations. Otuel is staunch to avenge his uncle Vernagu’s death and thus challenges Roland who has killed Vernagu. In the midst of his fight against Roland the Holy Ghost takes the shape of a dove and perches on his helmet. This inspires Otuel so much that he converts into Christianity. Meanwhile, King Charles offers her daughter Belesant’s hand to Otuel. After this Otuel undertakes a journey along with Charlemagne and the Christians emerge victorious. Then he gets married to Belesant and becomes the Lord of Lombardy. The oldest version of this story in English is Otuel written in four-stressed couplets. This is preserved in the Auchinleck MS. A better version is Duke Rowland and Sir Otuel of Spayne which is preserved in the same manuscript as the Sege of Melayne. This is composed in tail-rime stanzas. Another romance, Otuel and Roland, is considered to be a continuation of Roland and Vernagu and is different from the other Otuel romances because it continues with the story for another thousand lines and draws its material from Pseudo-Turpin. All these Otuel romances have certain characteristics in common and are assumed to be based upon an English romance which is lost.
Apart from these three there is another romance, Roland and Vernagu which has been referred to earlier. It is marked by exaggeration. The early section narrates how Charlemagne assists the Patriarch of Jerusalem and receives different relics like the crown of thorns and the arm of St. Simeon. However, the romance receives its name from the latter part where Vernagu, a forty-feet Saracen throws a challenge to Charlemagne’s douzepers. This romance is incomplete and since it ends in the midst of mirth, it seems to give clue to the story of Otuel which is found in other versions. Another romance which is worth mentioning is The Sege of Melayne which has no correspondence in French literature. This romance is remarkable for the delineation of a particular character, Archbishop Turpin, who turns to the battlefield discarding his priestly attire.
The interest in Charlemagne romance in England is essentially religious and focuses on the glorification of Christianity. Both the Saracen gallants, Ferumbras and Otuel, are converted into Christian faith and there are instances of divine intervention. These romances were sometimes produced by the monks who considered these romances to be a means to attract patronage by identifying their patrons with Charlemagne’s heroes.These romances seem to be composed with missionary zeal and are pietistic in nature.
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POINTS TO REMEMBER
Some of the important romances belonging to the Matter of France are:
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MATTER OF BRITAIN:
The ‘Matter of Britain’ is centred on the Arthurian stories whose references can be found in the historic writings of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain and Layamon’s Brut. Most of the later Arthurian romances have evolved from the Breton legends and not from the English chroniclers. The latter part of the twelfth century and the beginning of the thirteenth century mark the significant period for the flourish of the Arthurian romance in Germany and France. The English Arthurian romances evolved later but retain the influences of the earlier French development. However, to read the English romances without an awareness of the French background seems meaningless. Moreover, since the bright days of the medieval romances were already gone, the English romancers, with a few exceptions, could not recreate the spontaneity and spirit of the earlier French writers.
Among the poets of these kinds of romances, mention must be made of Chretien who laid stress on one particular episode or a few related episodes pertaining to the life of the hero, moving away from the biographical romances. Later Arthurian romances follow the trend set by Chretien. Hence almost no English romance deals with the entire life of Arthur. A short poem titled Arthur composed in the second half the fourteenth century is the only exception. Otherwise all the romances centre around particular aspects of Arthur’s career or the adventures undertaken by the knights of the Round Table. Some of the romances also deal with themes like the history of the Holy Grail.
The early phase of Arthur’s life is linked up with the figure of Merlin. The night Arthur was begotten, Merlin’s magical skill enabled Uther Pendragon to gain entry to Ygerne. Since the time Arthur was a young prince pulling the sword from the stone till he ascends the throne and emerges victorious in every battle both in his own country and abroad, Merlin’s suggestions and supernatural powers have always helped Arthur. Arthur and Merlin, a romance of around ten thousand lines, narrates this span of Arthur’s life. This romance has drawn inspiration from a French verse, titled Brut. It is marked by monotony and presents a sustained picture of battles.
Another very interesting topic for the English poets was the early military adventures of Gawain. The most popular among these romances is Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (discussed in Module 12). Another noteworthy Gawain romance is Ywain and Gawain which has been adapted from Chretien’s Yvain and is remarkable for polished style and narrative technique. It deals with a combat between Gawain and the hero, both of whom are ignorant of each other’s identity. Gawain’s popularity reaches such a height that his son is depicted as the hero in the romance Libeaus Desconus. It presents Gingelein, the unknown knight, who liberates the Queen of Sinadoun from prison and succeeds to get married to her after winning over knights and giants.
Another English romance, Lancelot of the Laik, chooses Lancelot as its subject and describes his role in the battle between Arthur and Galiot and concludes with Lancelot being accepted as the lover by Guinevere. However, this last bit of the romance is lost. This romance is inspired by the French prose Lancelot. This work fails to hold the readers’ attention because of a tedious prologue and a seven-hundred line sermon on the responsibilities associated with kingship. Though Lancelot of the Laik is the only Lancelot romance as far as the title is concerned, the stanzaic Morte Arthur, composed in 1400, focuses on the adventures of Lancelot, his love for his queen, they being separated and finally his death. The title is inspired by the latter portion when the lovers are betrayed and Arthur wages war against Lancelot. During the course of this struggle Arthur is compelled to come back home because of the treason of Mordred and suffers from the death wound. It is terse as far as the narrative is concerned and reminds us of the longer ballads of the English romances. This work is very different from the alliterative romance MorteArthure composed in 1360. It deals with Arthur’s Roman campaign. But there is no reference to the wounded Arthur being carried by boat to be treated. It is a brilliant example of workmanship and artistic skill. There are spontaneous passages dealing with Arthur’s banquet, his duel with the giant, the parting scene between him and Guinevere and many such other scenes. The richness of presentation and the literary qualities point at the skill and expertise of the poet. This romance is found in a MS copied by Robert Thornton. However, it is a shortened version of the original one.
Other two extremely popular subjects of the Arthurian cycle in the Middle Ages are the Tristan theme and the Perceval-Grail theme. However, these themes are handled much less by the English poets. Except by Malory, the only poem that deals with the story of Tristan and Iseult is Sir Tristrem. It deals with a vast panorama of incidents- the birth of the hero, his various adventures in Ireland and at King Mark’s court, his drinking the love potion and falling in love with Iseult who was the would-be-bride of his uncle, the resultant adventures and his death. Unfortunately, the narrative is abrupt and prior knowledge of the story is essential for the readers to understand certain portions of the poem. As far as the Perceval-Grail theme is concerned Sir Perceval of Gales, a poem in sixteen-line stanzas, deals with a portion of the story found in Chretien’s Perceval. Here Perceval is portrayed as a rustic character who possesses the courage and strength necessary to kill the Red Knight and other adversaries, rescue the Lady Lufamour from her Saracn suitor and get married to her. However, there is no reference to the Grail or the related quest here. This romance has a primitiveness associated with it and hence it cannot be ascertained if it was influenced by Chretien. The reference to the Holy Grail and its mystical history is found in an early work by Robert de Boron titled Joseph d’ Arimathie and it is dealt much elaborately in Vulgate’s Estoire del Saint Graal. An alliterative English romance Joseph of Arimathie narrates the early part of the story and later on Henry Lovelich deals with it quite elaborately in the poem The History of the Holy Grail.
Thus we find that the English romances deal with all the major themes of Arthurian legend except the Grail quest. However, these can be assumed to be only a few romances while the others are lost either during the manuscript transmission or simply along with the minstrels who used to sing them.
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POINTS TO REMEMBER
Some of the important works belonging to the Matter of Britain are:
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MATTER OF ROME:
The subject matter of medieval romances based on classical stories are mainly centred around Alexander the Great, Trojan War, the siege of Thebes and the adventures of Aeneas. These romances form the Matter of Rome. All these subjects were dealt with in French romances during the twelfth century. However, the English romances based on the classical themes are mostly focussed on the stories of Troy and Alexander. The knowledge about the fall of Troy that the people of the Middle Ages acquired is not from Homer, but, from two short prose translations from Greek. These two accounts are by Dares and Dictys and are found in medieval manuscripts. Though there are instances of repetition, of these together provide comprehensive account of events from Jason’s story and that of the golden fleece to the victorious return of the Greeks and the death of Ulysses. The first vernacular work based on this material is Roman de Troie by a Norman-French poet Benoit de Sainte-More. Seege of Troye, a poem of two thousand lines, is the earliest example of Troy romance in English. The sources of this poem are manuscripts written in North-east Midlands in the fourteenth century along with additions from Benoit and other classical elements. However, the poem rushes at a hectic speed in order to cover different events from Jason’s adventures to the destruction of Troy and the victory of the Greeks. This poem is meant for recitation or reading and there are references of appeal to the “lordings” to listen to the minstrel who is reciting it. Laud Troy Book deals with the same subject matter and is marked by fluency.it is a composition of eighteen thousand verses and dates back to 1400. Gest Historiale of the Destruction of Troy, an alliterative poem of fourteen thousand lines is the outcome of Alliterative Revival in the north.
Most popular among the classical English romances is the Alexander theme. All popular medieval Alexander romances have their source in a Greek romantic biography composed before 200 A.D. by pseudo-Callisthenes. His work deals with legends regarding Alexander’s birth and his extensive travels and multiple experiences in countries like India. Pseudo-Callisthenes was translated by Julius Valerius into Latin and enjoyed wide circulation. Another popular translation into Latin was made by Leo, Archpresbyter of Naples and this translation is called Historia de Preliis. The literary works composed in vernaculars in Western Europe are all based on these two Latin translations. A Provancal poem by Alberic of Pisancon is considered to be the earliest European work dealing with the Alexander theme. In 1160 it was adapted in French and later altered. This later Roman d’Alexandre is considered to be the standard in which the story is prevalent in French. There is another French poem written in England by Thomas of Kent titled Roman de TouteChevalerie. This is the source of the famous English romance King Alisaunder.
King Alisaundercan be estimated to be composed in 1300 and narrates the story of the Egyptian king, Nectanebus, who casts his magic spell on the wife of Philip of Macedon, Olympas, and eventually becomes the father of her son, Alexander. It also describes Alexander’s military pursuits and his victory over Darius. The second part deals with his conquest of India and the diverse adventures he encountered during his travels.
There are two fragments in alliterative verse known as Alexander A and Alexander B dealing with the Alexander theme. In the first fragment the author is not dependent on any French romance and narrates the ancestry and victories of Philip of Macedon but takes inspiration from Latin books, particularly Historia de Preliis. Alexander B is an exchange of letters between Alexander and Dindimus focussing on the Brahmin way of life. It is alliterative and has an ease and fluency of its own.
Another classical story which had immense popularity in the Middle Ages is the story of Oedipus and his marriage with his mother. The Virgilian epic Thebaidbased on this theme or an epitome of it was the source of a French poem Roman de Thebes. The latter is the source of other romances. The only English romance based on this theme is Lydgate’s Siege of Thebes.
The handling of ancient classical stories by medieval romancers helps us to peep into the minds of the medieval people. It is the depiction of classical culture tempered by medieval sentiment and the sources from which the stories are derived are not from the mainstream classical literature. These romances are of primary interest to modern readers not for their literary quality; rather because they provide an insight into the medieval imagination.
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POINTS TO REMEMBER
Some of the important works belonging to the Matter of Rome are:
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MATTER OF ENGLAND:
Another very significant ‘Matter’ which Jean Bodel did not mention is a group of romances called ‘The Matter of England’. This group deals with material from Germanic sources of English history, particularly a portion of oral legends celebrating English heroes as Offa, Earl Godwin and Eadric the Wild. King Horn is the earliest extant romance belonging to this group which is a brilliant instance of discarding courtly elements of the French by the English romancers who gave more emphasis on adventure in comparison to the love element. It narrates the adventures encountered by a prince who is compelled to sail out of his kingdom Suddene because of pagan invasion by the Saracens. During his exile he falls in love with princess Rimenhild, is betrayed by a companion, goes to Ireland and fights for the Irish king, returns in time to rescue his beloved from getting married to another suitor, finally wins back his throne and gets married. It is a simple plot marked by a liveliness and charm.
Another notable romance belonging to this group is Havelock the Dane which also focuses on adventures and is worth-mentioning because of its vitality. The first part of the story deals with the orphan princess Goldborough who is imprisoned in Dover Castle by a regent named Godrich who promised Goldborough’s father to get her married to the strongest and fairest man. Part two presents Havelock who is equally betrayed by Councillor Godard who after Havelock’s father’s death arranges for a fisherman named Grim to get Havelock drowned. However, observing a light emitting from the baby Havelock’s mouth and a bright mark on his shoulder Grim understands that he is royal heir. So he flees along with his family and Havelock and settles down in a place called Grimsby and continues with fishing. During a famine Havelock, in order to lessen burden upon Grim, takes up a job with the cook of Earl of Lincoln and becomes a favourite of everyone. During this tenure Havelock wins a prize by putting a stone twelve feet further than anyone else and Godrich forces Goldborough to get married to Havelock. Eventually she understands that Havelock is a king’s son. Finally Havelock gains back his kingdom and lives a long life. In both the earlier romances the hero is associated with common people and possesses homely virtues. The romances are not about courtly sophistication; rather they reflect the spirit of the English middle class.
Among the English romances two immensely popular stories are Guy of Warwick and Bevis ofHampton. The former initially deals with Guy’s adventures in order to impress Felice, the daughter of Earl of Warwick and after their marriage the combats are against the infidels for a greater cause. Finally Guy imbibes a spirit of renunciation and leads his life with utmost humility. This last section seems to be written by a monk.
Bevis of Hampton has a gusto and in a racy style describes how Bevis’ mother plots the murder of her husband, gets married to the murderer, how Bevis is sold away and taken into the service of the Saracen king, Ermin, how Ermin’s daughter Josian falls in love with Bevis and how he fights against the Saracen suitors of Josian and in order to maintain his reputation as a Christian knight. The episodes are sometimes loose and there is employment of stock motifs; however, there is an unmistakable exuberance throughout.
Richard Coeur de Lion is a brilliant example of a real English hero, Richard I, being the source of a romance. His adventures, significant role in the Third Crusade, his magnanimous personality were sources of national pride. It is true that the poet made alterations in historical records and introduced legendary elements but the strong English bias and scorn for the French king leaves no doubt about its English origin.
The romance of Athelston also modifies history and seems to be influenced by a minstrel or ecclesiastical figures because of the humiliation of the king at the hands of the Church.
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POINTS TO REMEMBER
Some important works included in the Matter of England are:
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MISCELLANEOUS ROMANCES:
Apart from these four ‘Matters’ there are other miscellaneous romances which deal with independent subjects. Floris and Blancheflour revolves around a popular love legend of the east which came into Europe through the Crusades. Another such medieval romance is Sir Orfeo in which the classical story of Orpheus and Eurydice is treated in the fashion of a Breton laiand thus transformed into a fairy tale far distant from the Greek myth of Hades. It is a translation from a French original in the south. The setting is changed from Greek to medieval. The romance is marked by simplicity and naivety and the story is well-constructed.
CONCLUSION:
There are several other unclassified Middle English romances dealing with diversified themes as tolerance of abused woman, conventional courtly situations, history and folklore. The verse forms of all these romances vary from short rhyming couplets to complicated stanzas. The stylistic variations are also remarkable. Another interesting aspect of these romances is the clue that modern readers get about the practices and temperaments of the medieval times. Just like the verse romances there are several Middle English prose romances. A famous example of this is Morte d’ Arthur. This will be discussed in Middle English Prose.
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Reference
- Baugh, A.C. Literary History of England vol 1. London, 1994
- Burrow, J.A. Essays on Medieval Literature. Oxford, 1984
- Daiches, David. A Critical History of English LiteratureVol 1. India, 2007
- Legouis and Cazamian. A History of English Literature Vol 1. Macmillan, 1927
- Mehl, Dieter. The Middle English Romances of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. London, 1969
- Stevens, John. Medieval Romance. London, 1973
- Performance and Middle English Romances: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U9TlwMlkQIY
- Horn Ballad: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nWealaEyIt0
- Middle Age: An Age of Chivalry and Romance: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Yi6NyXrUiU&index=2&list=PL95DU3xdOVGW5pHEv6_ VrmtVVmVEMFwpV
- Romance of the Middle Ages: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xP8uJ3YU974&list=PL95DU3xdOVGW5pHEv6_VrmtVVm VEMFwpV&index=3