2 Theories of Educational Administration

Mrs. Amandeep Kaur

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.   Introduction

2.  Theories of Educational Administration

2.1 Classical Organizational Theory

2.1.1 Principles of Organizational Theory

2.1.2 Scientific Manage ment Theory

2.1.3 Administrative Management Theory

2.2 Critical Educational Administration Theory

2.3 Human Relations Approach

2.4 Behavioral Science Approach

2.5 Post-behavioural Science Era

3.  Summary

1. INTRODUCTION

Educational Administration means to achieve the goals of Education through effective and efficient manipulation of available inputs. It is concerned with the utilization of adequate resources available in the environment, in order to foster the attainment of the goals of teaching and learning. It is always concerned with management of things as well as with human relationships, based on a body of basic principles and aiming at educating the children and youth. It has to undertake a number of functions like:

                                            

                   Functions of Educational Administration

        Planning, organization, direction, motivation, control, coordination, decision making and the last one is reporting. It is a specialized activity which runs the entire educational programme with fruitful and constructive goal.

   Educational institutions operate in a dynamic environment. The process of continuous improvement thrives when the mindset of the stakeholders is geared towards constant monitoring, problem identification and research. It means that Educational Administration performs a three- fold job to ensure efficient working. These jobs are: Stating the specific purpose, Mission of education and Mission of institutions. Thus, Educational Administration deals with the optimal functioning of the institution by developing the human personality in a balanced manner.

Learning Outcomes

After going through this topic students will be able to:

1. Understand the meaning of educational administration
2. Classify the theories of educational administration
3. Discuss the different theories of educational administration
4. Draw difference between different theories of educational administration

2. THEORIES OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Administrative theories are discussed in the historical framework of four models as shown in the flowchart

  These are Classical organizational theory, the human relations approach, the behavioural science approach and the last is post-behavioural Science era.

2.1 Classical Organizational Theory

This theory came into existence during the early years of the twentieth century. It deals with the formal organization and concepts to increase management efficiency. Major contributors to the classical organizational theory are Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick and Max Weber.

   2.1.1 Principles of Organizational Theory:

• Scalar principle: line Vs. staff (It refers to line of authority)
• Unity of Command: It involves receiving of orders from only one person
• Exception Principle: It involves delegation of routine tasks and deals only with exceptions
• Span of Control: This theory is limited to number of people reporting to their superiors i.e. no. of people can be (3 to 12).

    Classical Organizational Theory includes two different mana gement perspectives:

Scientific management and administrative management.

2.1.2. Scientific Manage ment Theory

The theory of scientific management is the brainchild of Frederick Winslow Taylor.

Frederick Taylor (1856-1915), leading proponent of scientific management

Source:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management#/media/File:F._Taylor_1856-1915.jpg

This theory emphasized on management of work and workers. In its simplest form, the theory follows the idea that there is one best way to do a job and that is to use scientific method. In his view, if a task is scientifically managed it will increase the productivity by increasing efficiency and wages of workers. Scientific management in terms of time study standards, separation of administrative and employee duties and incentive systems would correct the performance of labors.

The main features of this theory are:

• It finds out best method for performing each job.
• It selects employees by using scientific selection procedure.
• It believes in having close relationship with management and employees.
• It uses division of labour.
• It tries to produce maximum output by fixing performance standards for each job and by having a differential piece rate system for each job for payment of wages.

This theory is based on certain principles. In the year 1911, Taylor gave four principles for scientific management:

1. Scientific Job Analysis: Job should be analyzed through observation, data gathering, careful measurement and management. Such job analysis will replace the old rule-of-thumb method.

2. Selection of Personnel: Once the job is analyzed, the next step is to scientifically select, train, teach and produce workers. Previously, workers chose their own work and train themselves.

3. Management Cooperation: Managers should cooperate with workers to ensure that all work being done should be in line with the principles of Science i.e. scientific method.

4. Functional Supe rvising: Managers assume planning, organizing, and decision-making activities, whereas workers perform their jobs. In the past, almost all work and the greater part of the responsibility were thrust on workers.

Besides above mentioned principles, Taylor has also given two more Principles of scientific management.

1. Performance Standards: Taylor introduced time and motion studies to fix performance standards. For bringing uniformity of work, he fixed performance standards for time cost and quality of work. As a result, the efficiency of workers could be compared.

2. Differential Piece Rate System: Under differential piece rate system, a standard output was first fixed. Taylor studied that workers did as little work as possible. He felt that under existing wage system, an efficient worker gained nothing extra. Then two wage rates were fixed. These are:

• Low wage rate was fixed for those workers who did not produce the standard output.
• Higher wage rate was fixed for those workers who produced standard output or more than the standard output.

    By adopting such a system of wage rate, inefficient workers will try to improve their efficiency and efficient workers will be motivated to maintain or improve their production capacity.

 2.1.3 Administrative Management Theory

Scientific management focuses on jobs of individual workers, whereas administrative management theory concentrates on the administration of entire organization. This theory is related to the issues of structure and management of organization. Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick and Max Weber are the major contributors in the field of administrative management theory.

Source:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Fayol#/media/File:Fonds_henri_fayol.jpg

Source: http://wikidi.com/view/luther-gulick

   According to Fayol, all managers perform basic functions of management. These are:

●       Planning

●       Organizing

●       Commanding

●       Coordination

●       Controlling

Besides the five basic management functions, Fayol has also identified principles of management and these are:

●       Division of Work

●       Authority

●       Discipline

●       Unity of command

●       Unity of direction

●       Subordination of individual interest

●       Centralization

●       Scalar chain

●       Order

●       Equity

●       Stability of personnel and

●       Initiative

These principles emphasize chain of command, allocation of authority, order, efficiency, equity and stability.

Max Weber also recognized the importance of these factors. Luther Gulick another classical theorist coined the term POSDCORB that refers to seven functions of management. These functions are planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting.

Planning: It involves developing an outline of things that must be accomplished, and methods for accomplishing them.

Organizing: it establishes the formal structure through which work divisions are arranged and coordinated to implement the plan.

Staffing: it  involves  the  function  of  selecting  and  training  the  staff, maintaining the favorable and congenial conditions for the enhancement of professional efficiency of staff.

Directing: it includes continuous task of making, communicating and implementing decisions.

Coordinating: it includes all efforts that are needed to bind together the organization in order to achieve a common goal.

Reporting: it includes verification of progress through records, research and inspection. It insures that things happen according to the planning. 

Budgeting: it involves all the activities that accompany budgeting, including fiscal planning, accounting and control.

   2.2 Critical Educational Administration Theory

Critical Educational Administration theory assumes the existence of both objective and subjective knowledge of an objective and unordered reality. So it incorporates the methodologies of both the objective and subjective perspectives. This theory positing the existence of objective reality and subjective knowledge of reality. Reality is viewed as being in a constant state of change. Because of this change, laws are not sought by the critical theorist. Critical educational administration theory provides a means whereby school leaders can understand and ultimately disentangle themselves from the external and internal forces which impose upon educational practice. As Hoy in the year (1994) clarified: “Critical theory attempts to raise people’s consciousness about their living and working condition through logic and debate, but in the process it relies on the generation and analysis of ideologies”. Critical theorists elaborate the values and practices within schools which maintain the ideological perspective of schools. Topics such as curriculum, teaching and student issues display the inherent social values in the schooling process.

2.3 Human Relations Approach

The human relations approach is considered to have started with a series of studies known as Hawthorne studies that have strongly influenced administrative theory as shown in flowchart.

Source: http://www.businessstudynotes.com/hrm/an-overview-about-behavioral-management-theories/

    Mayo and his associates were not the only contributors to the human relations approach. There were a number of strong intellectual currents which influenced the human relations movement during this period. Kurt Lewin emphasized field theory and his research was known as group dynamics. His associates concluded that democratic groups, in which members actively participate in decisions, are more productive in terms of both human satisfaction and achievement as compared to authoritarian groups. The writings of Jacob Moreno made a substantial contribution to the human relations movement. Like Lewin, Moreno was interested in interpersonal relations within groups. He developed a sociometric technique, where people have selective affinities for other people, groups composed of individuals with similar affinities for one another will likely perform better than groups lacking such affective preferences. In the similar way the human relations approach made relationships between employees and supervisors, the most salient aspect of management. It advocates the training of people in behavioral sciences, such as clinical and social psychology to emphasize building collaborative and cooperative.

  Relationships between supervisors and workers. Two key aspects of human relationships approach are employee motivation and leadership style.

The major assumptions of the human relations approach include the following ideas:

• Employees are motivated by social and psychological needs and by economic incentives.
• These needs, including but not limited to recognition, belongingness and security, are more important in determining worker morale and productivity than the physical conditions of the work environment.
• An individual’s perceptions, beliefs, motivations, cognition, responses to frustration, values and similar factors may affect behavior in the work setting.
• People in all types of organizations tend to form informal social organizations that work along with the formal organization and can help or hinder management.
• Informal social groups within the workplace create and enforce their own norms and codes of behavior. Team effort, conflict between groups, group loyalty, communication patterns, and emergent leadership are important concepts for determining individual and group behavior.
• Employees have higher morale and work harder under supportive management which lead to increased productivity.
• Communication, power, influence, authority, motivation, and manipulation are all important relationships within an organization. In this approach, field study methods as well as laboratory experiments were used to study the work environment and to understand the employee behavior in the workplace.

  2.4 Behavioral Science Approach

Behavioral scientists considered both the classical rational-economic model and the human relation social model to be incomplete representations of employees in the work setting. Chester Barnard was one of the first authors to take the behavioral science approach.

He is best known for cooperative system which refers to integrate in a single framework- human relations and classical management principles. In the year 1938, Barnard stressed on two conditions if cooperation and financial success are to be attained. First, the executive must emphasize the importance of effectiveness, which is the degree to which the common purpose of the organization is achieved. Second, the executive must be aware of efficiency, which is the satisfaction of “individual motives” of employees. In his view, an organization can operate and survive only when both the goals of organization and individuals working for it are kept in equilibrium. It means that, managers must have both human as well as technical skills that are required for goal achievement.Beside Barnard, another major contributor to the behavioral science approach was E. Wight Bakke who embodied a fusion process. Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor are other great contributors to the behavioral approach.

In the year 1970, Abraham Maslow a psychologist advanced a theory of human motivation that was later adopted by many managers.

Theory of Maslow was based on motivation and he considered three viewpoints:

1. Human beings have needs that are never completely satisfied.
2. Human action is aimed at fulfilling the needs that are unsatisfied.
3. These needs can be classified in a hierarchy from the lowest to highest.

In this respect Maslow identified five sets of human needs as shown in the diagram, These needs are

    1.  Physiological

2. Safety

3. Social belonging

4. Esteem needs

5. Self actualization

But McGregor brought a new perspective to management and challenged managers to think of subordinates as responsible, capable, and creative. He developed two theories: theory X and theory Y.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/X- y-theory-diagram-1-728.jpg

Managers under theory X tends to be autocratic, control oriented and distrustful. On the other hand, Theory Y managers view subordinates optimistically as individuals who want to take challenges in their working environments, prefer self-control and are capable of responsible independent judgment.

In this light Gregar gave assumptions on which theory X and Y are based.

Theory X Assumptions :

• The average human being has inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if it is possible.
• Because of his characteristic of dislike of work, most people must be compelled, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to get them put forth adequate effort towards the attainment of the objectives.
• The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above all.

    Theory Y Assumptions :

• The average human being does not have inherent dislike for work.
• People will exercise self direction and self control in the service, or pursuit of objectives to which they are committed.
• Commitment to objectives is a function of the reward associated with their achievement.
• The average human being learns under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility.
• The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely not narrowly distributed in population.
• Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human beings are only partially utilized.

Difference between Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X	Theory Y
WORKER  IS  LAZY  AND  DISLIKES WORK	PEOPLE   ARE   NOT   LAZY   BY NATURE BUT THE TREATMENT IN ORGANISATION MAKES THEM SO
THEY ARE UNAMBITIOUS AND  AVOID RESPONSIBILITY	THEY ARE AMBITIOUS AND THEY ACCEPT  RESPONSIBILITY UNDER PROPER  CONDITIONS
THEY ARE  NOT  BOTHERED  ABOUT ORGANISATIONAL   OBJECTIVES    THEY SHOULD BE DIRECTED	THEY WILL EXERCISE SELF CONTROL AND SELF DIRECTION  NEED NOT BE DIRECTED

2.5 Post-behavioural Science Era:

In  the   view   of   Murphy   (2002),    three   interrelated   concepts-that    are   school improvement, democratic community and social justice form the development of the next era of the profession-that is the post-behavioural science era. The behavioural science approach influenced the preparation and practice of school administrators.

   School Improvement: Accountability for school improvement is a central theme of state policies. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 sets demanding accountability standards for schools, school districts, and states, including new state testing requirements designed to improve education. For bringing school improvement, purpose must be clarified i.e. the school district and the administrators and teachers who work in it are accountable for student learning. It means that what teachers teach and students learn is a matter of public inspection and subject to direct measurement.

Encouraging collective learning: setting state standards should be a collective mission of the school and school district. It means it should not be one man show.

Aligning with state standards: Test conducted by states should be in alignment with their standards.

Providing support: To help all students to achieve high standards, teachers should be provided with the training, teaching tools and support materials.

Democratic Community: which is based on the open flow of ideas that enables people to be as fully informed as possible. It involves the use of critical reflection and analysis to evaluate ideas, problems, and policies. It places responsibility on individuals to participate in open inquiry, collective choices and actions in the interest of the common good.

Social Justice: It is the core of democracy in which every citizen is treated equally in social, economic, political, and educational areas. Excellence and equity are related to social justice.

3. SUMMARY

    The development of administrative thought can be placed into a loose historical framework of four models: classical organizational theory, the human relations approach, the behavioral science approach, and the post-behavioral science era. The classical “rational” model evolved around the ideas of scientific and administrative management. The human relations “social” model includes experimentation and analysis of the social and psychological aspects of people in the workplace and the study of group behavior. The behavioral science approach was an attempt to reconcile disagreement between the rational–economic model and the social model. The more recent post-behavioral science era includes the interrelated concepts of school improvement, democratic community, and social justice.

References

• Kocher (1964) Secondary School Administration, Educational Administration – It’s What, Why and How, S.K. University Publications.
• Mohanty B. (2001) School Administration and Supervision, Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.

Web links

• www.google.com2001ile:///C:/Users/sgs/Downloads/14957-17680-1-PB.pdf
• http://www.cengagebrain.com.mx/content/lunenburg01247_1111301247_02.01_cha pter01.pdf
• http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/educational- management/educational-administration/educational-administration-meaning- nature-and-other-details/63730/