{"id":80,"date":"2019-04-12T09:24:59","date_gmt":"2019-04-12T09:24:59","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=80"},"modified":"2019-04-12T10:09:59","modified_gmt":"2019-04-12T10:09:59","slug":"types-of-antigens-and-immunization-procedures","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/chapter\/types-of-antigens-and-immunization-procedures\/","title":{"rendered":"Types of Antigens and Immunization Procedures"},"content":{"raw":"<ol>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Objectives<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>To learn about various types of antigens we use in experimental immunology and are equally encountered by the immune system<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are the various types of Immunization procedures<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To understand the features of the three types of acquired immunity<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ol start=\"2\">\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Concept Map<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-83\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-39.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"483\" height=\"236\" \/>\r\n<ol start=\"3\">\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Description<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Various antigens of microbial origin will be studied in this module. In the previous module we had learnt about innate immunity. Here we are going to learn about acquired immunity. It is of three types: Active, Passive and Adoptive.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Microbial organisms have diverse types of antigens. The acquired immunity has three routes.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The immunization procedures have to be viewed in the context of why immunization is being carried out.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The preferred method of immunization against different infectious agents depends upon the nature of the infectious agents\/disease.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In a later module we will discuss what makes a particular substance, a good antigen or a bad antigen.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In much of experimental immunology, we mostly deal with proteins and their conjugates as experimental antigens Important microbial antigens are proteins or protein conjugates:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Clostridial Toxins<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Bacterial flagella<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Viral Capsids<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Protozoan cell membranes Other examples are:<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Snake venoms<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Serum proteins<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Milk proteins<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Hormones<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Antibodies themselves constitute important antigens in experimental immunology. All antibodies are immunoglobulins and are proteins\/glycoproteins.<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-84\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-40.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"612\" height=\"293\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Cell wall lipopolysaccharide of gram negative bacteria are endotoxins.<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-85\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-41.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"527\" height=\"341\" \/>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Lipid A is an endotoxin<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\r\n \t<li>\u00a0Lipopolysaccharide O is an antigen<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Some bacteria are enclosed by capsules which are either protein or polysaccharide in nature. Capsular antigens are called K-antigens. Pili or fimbriae are called F-antigens.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Bacteria flagella consists of protein called flagellin and these antigens are called H-antigens.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Proteins secreted by bacteria or obtained by autolysis of bacteria are called endotoxins. The antibody formed against all these bacterial antigens have protective function.<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-86\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-42.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"309\" height=\"510\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Viral Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\r\n \t<li>\u00a0The protein coat is called capsid<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\r\n \t<li>\u00a0Capsids are good antigens<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Cell surface Antigens of Mammalian Cells<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Blood Group Antigens: Early unsuccessful blood transfusions between unrelated individuals led to the realization about A and B antigens<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-87\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-43.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"531\" height=\"451\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Histocompatibility Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Nucleated cells have many cell surface antigens. Most important ones are the histocompatibility antigens which provoke strong immune response and are major histocompatibility antigens. These play a very important role in immune responses and will be discussed in considerable detail in the future lectures.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-88\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-44.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"448\" height=\"411\" \/><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Auto Antigens and Super Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Auto Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Sometimes antibodies are produced in response to normal self antigens. This happens when mechanisms responsible for self tolerance are bypassed. We will discuss this later while discussing tolerance and autoimmune diseases.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Super Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In the 1970s, Howard M. Johnson and co-workers at the University of Texas showed that bacterial enterotoxin A produced high amount of interferons.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">It has been found later on that enterotoxins (secreted by some bacteria like <em>S. aureus,<\/em> <em>S.pyrogens, Pseudomonas sp<\/em>.) and retroviral proteins can act as super antigens that is, provoke an exceptionally high T-cell response.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Some antigens are commonly used in experimental immunology as these are relatively cheap and available in pure form and large quantities.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Commonly used Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Endotoxins from E.coli<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Bovine serum albumin<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Flagellin<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Hemocyanin: Blood pigment of keyhole limpet<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0IgG<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Lysozyme<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Sheep RBCs<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0TGAL: A synthetic antigen consisting of Tyr and Glu linked to Ala side chains on a Lys backbone<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Types of Immunization<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-89\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-45.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"444\" height=\"498\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Immunization can be transferred by antibodies or lymphocytes<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-90\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-46.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"221\" height=\"490\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Passive Immunization<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\r\n \t<li>\u00a0Usually IgG is given either intravenously or intramuscularly<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\r\n \t<li>\u00a0Passive immunization is useful for immunocompromised individual who have deficient immune system responses<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0A well known example is the transfer of antisera from horse against tetanus to humans. It is usual to administer equine (Fab\u2019)2 to minimize its antigenicity<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Protection of foetus by maternal antibody and intestinal absorption of colostral antibody are examples of natural passive immunization<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-91\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-47.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"596\" height=\"313\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">This classification now gives us a clearer picture of the various ways the acquired immunity may be obtained. Protection of the foetus by maternal antibodies or by administering artificial immunoglobulins comprise the Passive acquired immunity. Active immunity can be obtained through natural infection or by administering artificial agents like living or dead organisms, metabolic products like toxoids, Genetically engineered antigens and synthetic antigens.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Animals used for raising antisera by active Immunization <\/em><\/strong>Rabbits, goats, sheep and fowls are generally used The unrelated specie has to be used. A far removed animal\/bird from the source of the antigen on the evolutionary tree is the best.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Immune response differs from animal to animal. So, initially several animals should be tried.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">If the volume required is large, goat or sheep are preferred.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Expenses like cost of animals and their housing sometime have to be considered<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Sites of Immunization<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Subcutanous and intramuscular routes are used. Single site or multisite injections may be used. Multisite injections provoke the immune system by different routes and generally result in better titres.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-92\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-48.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"438\" height=\"356\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Choice of antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Under the best conditions antisera can be raised with antigens in microgram amounts. Mixing of some substances (called adjuvants) with antigens help in obtaining better immunization.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Proteins which show less evolutionary divergence between mammalians turn out to be poor antigens. Cyt C, actin and myosin are examples of this.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Two approaches to overcome this are:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Raise antibody in fowls<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Croslink to form homopolymers or heteropolymers (e.g. with oval bumin)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Even conjugates like sepharose 2B-albumin-casein have been used to improve the antigenicity of casein<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-93\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-49.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"547\" height=\"271\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Immunization Schedule<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Non-immune serum before immunization should be collected for running control. Immunization should be repeated at regular intervals minimum after 2-3 weeks. Trial bleeding can track response and help in designing the immunization schedule in individual cases.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Preparation of low affinity adsorbents does not require high titre antiserum. Immunological purity is different from biochemical purity. This should be kept in mind while assessing antibody preparation. In general shorter immunization schedules contain fewer antibody to contaminating antigens.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Bleeding Methods<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Trial bleeding should use simple methods like from rabbit ear veins. In case of sheep or goat, venipuncture of the jugular vein works well.. Preparative bleeding may require local anaesthesia. Atleast 2-3 weeks should intervene between successive bleedings.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-95\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-51.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"514\" height=\"253\" \/><img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-96\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-52.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"529\" height=\"445\" \/>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Priming immunization and primary response<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The first immunization is sometime referred to as primary immunization.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The humoral response of the immune system in terms of antibody production is called primary response.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The primary response itself has four phases<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">During these different phases, both the concentration and nature of immunoglobulin changes.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Phases of the Primary Response<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-97\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-53.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"483\" height=\"362\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Latent or lag phase:<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">It is initial 2-3 weeks period after the first immunization. During this period antibody is not detectable in the serum. Obviously, if less sensitive method for antibody detection is used, the lag phase will appear to be longer<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>(b) Exponential Production Phase:<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The antibody concentration in the serum rises rapidly<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>(c) Steady State:<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The antibody concentration reaches a steady state and its rate of production and degradation are balanced<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>(d) Declining Phase:<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Immune response slows down and antibody concentration declines rapidly.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Generally only one kind of immunoglobulin called IgM is synthesized during the primary response.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">If another kind of immunoglobulin IgG is synthesized, its formation is detected only after IgM concentration has nearly declined.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Phases of the Secondary Response<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-98\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-54.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"542\" height=\"212\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The lag phase is shorter, generally by half. IgM may or may not be detected. If detected, it is soon replaced by IgG king of antibody. Serum contains much higher amount of antibody. It persists longer, lasting for months or even years. Other kinds of antibodies\/ Ig may also be formed.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The capacity to give this secondary (also called memory or anamnestic) response may persist for years in humans and serves as their basis for human immunization programs.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Summary<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Immu<\/em><\/strong><em>nization may be intentional or accidental<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>Antibody response depends upon the type of antigen<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>Immunization may be active, passive or adoptive<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>In active immunization with experimental animals, immunization schedule, bleeding schedule etc are important<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>Active immunization cons<\/em><strong><em>ists of primary response and secondary response<\/em><\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<ol>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Objectives<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<ul>\n<li>To learn about various types of antigens we use in experimental immunology and are equally encountered by the immune system<\/li>\n<li>What are the various types of Immunization procedures<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To understand the features of the three types of acquired immunity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ol start=\"2\">\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Concept Map<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-83\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-39.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"483\" height=\"236\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-39.png 483w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-39-300x147.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-39-65x32.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-39-225x110.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-39-350x171.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 483px) 100vw, 483px\" \/><\/p>\n<ol start=\"3\">\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Description<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Various antigens of microbial origin will be studied in this module. In the previous module we had learnt about innate immunity. Here we are going to learn about acquired immunity. It is of three types: Active, Passive and Adoptive.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Microbial organisms have diverse types of antigens. The acquired immunity has three routes.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The immunization procedures have to be viewed in the context of why immunization is being carried out.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The preferred method of immunization against different infectious agents depends upon the nature of the infectious agents\/disease.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In a later module we will discuss what makes a particular substance, a good antigen or a bad antigen.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In much of experimental immunology, we mostly deal with proteins and their conjugates as experimental antigens Important microbial antigens are proteins or protein conjugates:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Clostridial Toxins<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Bacterial flagella<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Viral Capsids<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Protozoan cell membranes Other examples are:<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Snake venoms<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Serum proteins<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Milk proteins<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Hormones<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Antibodies themselves constitute important antigens in experimental immunology. All antibodies are immunoglobulins and are proteins\/glycoproteins.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-84\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-40.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"612\" height=\"293\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-40.png 612w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-40-300x144.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-40-65x31.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-40-225x108.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-40-350x168.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 612px) 100vw, 612px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Cell wall lipopolysaccharide of gram negative bacteria are endotoxins.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-85\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-41.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"527\" height=\"341\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-41.png 527w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-41-300x194.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-41-65x42.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-41-225x146.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-41-350x226.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 527px) 100vw, 527px\" \/><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Lipid A is an endotoxin<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\n<li>\u00a0Lipopolysaccharide O is an antigen<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Some bacteria are enclosed by capsules which are either protein or polysaccharide in nature. Capsular antigens are called K-antigens. Pili or fimbriae are called F-antigens.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Bacteria flagella consists of protein called flagellin and these antigens are called H-antigens.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Proteins secreted by bacteria or obtained by autolysis of bacteria are called endotoxins. The antibody formed against all these bacterial antigens have protective function.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-86\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-42.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"309\" height=\"510\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-42.png 309w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-42-182x300.png 182w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-42-65x107.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-42-225x371.png 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 309px) 100vw, 309px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Viral Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\n<li>\u00a0The protein coat is called capsid<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\n<li>\u00a0Capsids are good antigens<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Cell surface Antigens of Mammalian Cells<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Blood Group Antigens: Early unsuccessful blood transfusions between unrelated individuals led to the realization about A and B antigens<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-87\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-43.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"531\" height=\"451\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-43.png 531w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-43-300x255.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-43-65x55.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-43-225x191.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-43-350x297.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 531px) 100vw, 531px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Histocompatibility Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Nucleated cells have many cell surface antigens. Most important ones are the histocompatibility antigens which provoke strong immune response and are major histocompatibility antigens. These play a very important role in immune responses and will be discussed in considerable detail in the future lectures.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-88\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-44.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"448\" height=\"411\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-44.png 448w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-44-300x275.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-44-65x60.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-44-225x206.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-44-350x321.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 448px) 100vw, 448px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Auto Antigens and Super Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Auto Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Sometimes antibodies are produced in response to normal self antigens. This happens when mechanisms responsible for self tolerance are bypassed. We will discuss this later while discussing tolerance and autoimmune diseases.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Super Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In the 1970s, Howard M. Johnson and co-workers at the University of Texas showed that bacterial enterotoxin A produced high amount of interferons.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">It has been found later on that enterotoxins (secreted by some bacteria like <em>S. aureus,<\/em> <em>S.pyrogens, Pseudomonas sp<\/em>.) and retroviral proteins can act as super antigens that is, provoke an exceptionally high T-cell response.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Some antigens are commonly used in experimental immunology as these are relatively cheap and available in pure form and large quantities.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Commonly used Antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Endotoxins from E.coli<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Bovine serum albumin<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Flagellin<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Hemocyanin: Blood pigment of keyhole limpet<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0IgG<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Lysozyme<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Sheep RBCs<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0TGAL: A synthetic antigen consisting of Tyr and Glu linked to Ala side chains on a Lys backbone<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Types of Immunization<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-89\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-45.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"444\" height=\"498\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-45.png 444w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-45-267x300.png 267w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-45-65x73.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-45-225x252.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-45-350x393.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 444px) 100vw, 444px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Immunization can be transferred by antibodies or lymphocytes<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-90\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-46.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"221\" height=\"490\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-46.png 221w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-46-135x300.png 135w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-46-65x144.png 65w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 221px) 100vw, 221px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Passive Immunization<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\n<li>\u00a0Usually IgG is given either intravenously or intramuscularly<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\n<li>\u00a0Passive immunization is useful for immunocompromised individual who have deficient immune system responses<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0A well known example is the transfer of antisera from horse against tetanus to humans. It is usual to administer equine (Fab\u2019)2 to minimize its antigenicity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Protection of foetus by maternal antibody and intestinal absorption of colostral antibody are examples of natural passive immunization<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-91\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-47.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"596\" height=\"313\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-47.png 596w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-47-300x158.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-47-65x34.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-47-225x118.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-47-350x184.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 596px) 100vw, 596px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">This classification now gives us a clearer picture of the various ways the acquired immunity may be obtained. Protection of the foetus by maternal antibodies or by administering artificial immunoglobulins comprise the Passive acquired immunity. Active immunity can be obtained through natural infection or by administering artificial agents like living or dead organisms, metabolic products like toxoids, Genetically engineered antigens and synthetic antigens.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Animals used for raising antisera by active Immunization <\/em><\/strong>Rabbits, goats, sheep and fowls are generally used The unrelated specie has to be used. A far removed animal\/bird from the source of the antigen on the evolutionary tree is the best.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Immune response differs from animal to animal. So, initially several animals should be tried.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">If the volume required is large, goat or sheep are preferred.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Expenses like cost of animals and their housing sometime have to be considered<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Sites of Immunization<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Subcutanous and intramuscular routes are used. Single site or multisite injections may be used. Multisite injections provoke the immune system by different routes and generally result in better titres.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-92\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-48.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"438\" height=\"356\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-48.png 438w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-48-300x244.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-48-65x53.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-48-225x183.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-48-350x284.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 438px) 100vw, 438px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Choice of antigens<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Under the best conditions antisera can be raised with antigens in microgram amounts. Mixing of some substances (called adjuvants) with antigens help in obtaining better immunization.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Proteins which show less evolutionary divergence between mammalians turn out to be poor antigens. Cyt C, actin and myosin are examples of this.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Two approaches to overcome this are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Raise antibody in fowls<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0Croslink to form homopolymers or heteropolymers (e.g. with oval bumin)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Even conjugates like sepharose 2B-albumin-casein have been used to improve the antigenicity of casein<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-93\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-49.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"547\" height=\"271\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-49.png 547w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-49-300x149.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-49-65x32.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-49-225x111.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-49-350x173.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 547px) 100vw, 547px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Immunization Schedule<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Non-immune serum before immunization should be collected for running control. Immunization should be repeated at regular intervals minimum after 2-3 weeks. Trial bleeding can track response and help in designing the immunization schedule in individual cases.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Preparation of low affinity adsorbents does not require high titre antiserum. Immunological purity is different from biochemical purity. This should be kept in mind while assessing antibody preparation. In general shorter immunization schedules contain fewer antibody to contaminating antigens.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Bleeding Methods<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Trial bleeding should use simple methods like from rabbit ear veins. In case of sheep or goat, venipuncture of the jugular vein works well.. Preparative bleeding may require local anaesthesia. Atleast 2-3 weeks should intervene between successive bleedings.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-95\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-51.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"514\" height=\"253\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-51.png 514w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-51-300x148.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-51-65x32.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-51-225x111.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-51-350x172.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 514px) 100vw, 514px\" \/><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-96\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-52.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"529\" height=\"445\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-52.png 529w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-52-300x252.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-52-65x55.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-52-225x189.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-52-350x294.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 529px) 100vw, 529px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Priming immunization and primary response<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The first immunization is sometime referred to as primary immunization.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The humoral response of the immune system in terms of antibody production is called primary response.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The primary response itself has four phases<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">During these different phases, both the concentration and nature of immunoglobulin changes.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Phases of the Primary Response<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-97\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-53.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"483\" height=\"362\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-53.png 483w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-53-300x225.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-53-65x49.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-53-225x169.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-53-350x262.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 483px) 100vw, 483px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Latent or lag phase:<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">It is initial 2-3 weeks period after the first immunization. During this period antibody is not detectable in the serum. Obviously, if less sensitive method for antibody detection is used, the lag phase will appear to be longer<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>(b) Exponential Production Phase:<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The antibody concentration in the serum rises rapidly<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>(c) Steady State:<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The antibody concentration reaches a steady state and its rate of production and degradation are balanced<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>(d) Declining Phase:<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Immune response slows down and antibody concentration declines rapidly.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Generally only one kind of immunoglobulin called IgM is synthesized during the primary response.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">If another kind of immunoglobulin IgG is synthesized, its formation is detected only after IgM concentration has nearly declined.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Phases of the Secondary Response<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-98\" src=\"http:\/\/biocp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-54.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"542\" height=\"212\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-54.png 542w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-54-300x117.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-54-65x25.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-54-225x88.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/219\/2019\/04\/Untitled-54-350x137.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 542px) 100vw, 542px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The lag phase is shorter, generally by half. IgM may or may not be detected. If detected, it is soon replaced by IgG king of antibody. Serum contains much higher amount of antibody. It persists longer, lasting for months or even years. Other kinds of antibodies\/ Ig may also be formed.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The capacity to give this secondary (also called memory or anamnestic) response may persist for years in humans and serves as their basis for human immunization programs.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Summary<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong><em>Immu<\/em><\/strong><em>nization may be intentional or accidental<\/em><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>Antibody response depends upon the type of antigen<\/em><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>Immunization may be active, passive or adoptive<\/em><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>In active immunization with experimental animals, immunization schedule, bleeding schedule etc are important<\/em><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>Active immunization cons<\/em><strong><em>ists of primary response and secondary response<\/em><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["dr-m-n-gupta"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[58],"license":[],"class_list":["post-80","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-dr-m-n-gupta"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/80","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/80\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":102,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/80\/revisions\/102"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/80\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=80"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=80"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=80"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/biocp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=80"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}