{"id":70,"date":"2019-04-01T04:50:58","date_gmt":"2019-04-01T04:50:58","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/antp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=70"},"modified":"2019-04-01T05:03:04","modified_gmt":"2019-04-01T05:03:04","slug":"biotechnology-and-anthropology","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/chapter\/biotechnology-and-anthropology\/","title":{"rendered":"Biotechnology and anthropology"},"content":{"raw":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/FIurDvpiuU0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a>\r\n<\/span><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Contents:<\/strong>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n\u00a0 \u00a0 Anthropology in biological aspect\r\n\r\nAnthropology and biotechnology\r\n\r\nDifferent aspects of Biotechnology\r\n\r\nApplication of Biotechnology in Anthropology\r\n\r\nMolecular anthropology and DNA hybridization\r\n\r\nDifferent methodologies of biotechnology used in Anthropology specially in man\r\n\r\nSummary\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Learning Objective:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>To focus on the application of Biotechnology in Anthropology and specially in Human being.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Introduction<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anthropology is the study of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human\">human <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in all aspect. <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Biological anthropology<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, is the specialized discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human. <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Biotechnology<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> is the tool of any living systems to develop for modify products or processes for specific use by using technological application that uses biological systems (Arnold, 2005).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Hungarian <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineer\">engineer <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K%C3%A1roly_Ereky\">Karoly Ereky <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">first coined the term Biotechnology in 1919 and later apart from\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">agriculture and medicine it has expanded to <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genomics\">genomics, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recombinant_gene\">recombinant gene <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">techniques, applied <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immunology\">immunology, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and development of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pharmaceutical\">pharmaceutical <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">therapies and food production (Leakey, 1970).<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nThe different terms has been developed in specific fields such as \u2013\r\n\r\n<strong>a.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blue_biotechnology\"><strong>Blue biotechnology <\/strong><\/a>- is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications.\r\n\r\n<strong>b.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Green_biotechnology\"><strong>Green biotechnology <\/strong><\/a>- is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes.\r\n\r\n<strong>c.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biopharmaceutical\"><strong>Red biotechnology <\/strong><\/a>- is applied to medical processes.\r\n\r\nd.\u00a0 \u00a0<strong>White biotechnology <\/strong>- also known as industrial biotechnology, etc.\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">e.\u00a0\u00a0 apart from this a new field emerged i.e<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pharmacogenomics\"><strong>Pharmacogenomics<\/strong> <\/a>- is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs. Such technologydeveloped <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personalized_medicine\">personalized medicine <\/a>concept which is very important in population variation and ethnic specificity in anthropology.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Another important area is Molecular anthropology <\/strong>-in which <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular\">molecular <\/a>analysis is used to determine <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary\">evolutionary <\/a>links between ancient and modern human populations, as well as between contemporary species. Generally, comparisons are made between sequence, either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deoxyribonucleic_acid\">DNA <\/a>or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protein\">protein <\/a>sequence, however early studies used comparative <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serology\">serology <\/a>(Kay Devis, 1992). By examining <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_sequences\">DNA sequences <\/a>in different populations, scientists can determine the closeness of relationships between populations (or within populations). Certain similarities in genetic makeup let molecular anthropologists determine whether or not different groups of people belong to the same <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haplogroup\">haplogroup, <\/a>and thus if they share a common <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geographical\">geographical <\/a>origin.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">This is significant because it allows anthropologists to trace patterns of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_migration\">migration <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Town\">settlement,<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> which gives helpful insight as to how contemporary populations have formed and progressed over time.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Molecular anthropology has been extremely useful in establishing the evolutionary tree of humans and other <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Primates\">primates, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">including closely related species like chimps and gorillas.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">While there are clearly many <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morphology_(biology)\">morphological <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">similarities between humans and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chimpanzee\">chimpanzees. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Such information is useful in searching for common ancestors and coming to a better understanding of how humans evolved. Molecular anthropology has been extremely useful in establishing the evolutionary tree of humans and other <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Primates\">primates, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">including closely related species like chimps and gorillas (King, 1975).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There are two continuous <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linkage_group\">linkage groups <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in humans that are carried by a single sex. The first is the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Y_chromosome\">Y<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Y_chromosome\">chromosome, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">which is passed from father to son. The other linkage group is the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). MtDNA can only be passed to the next generation by females but only under highly exceptional circumstances is mtDNA passed through males (Pinholster, 2012).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The non-recombinant portion of the Y chromosome and the mtDNA, under normal circumstances, do not undergo productive recombination. Part of the Y chromosome can undergo recombination with the X chromosome and within ape history the boundary has changed. Such recombinant changes in the non-recombinant region of Y are extremely rare.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Since KringsNeandertalmtDNA have been sequenced, and the sequence similarity indicates an equally recent origin from a small population on the Neanderthal branch of late hominids. MCR1 gene has also been sequenced but the results are controversial.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Ancient DNA sequencing had been conducted on a limited scale up to the late 1990s when the staff at the Max Planck Institute shocked the anthropology world by sequencing DNA from an estimated 40,000-year-old <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neanderthal\">Neanderthal, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">which were derived from haplogroup H (CRS), Neandertals branched from humans more than 300,000 years before haplogroup H reached Europe. While the mtDNA and other studies continued to support a unique recent African origin, this new study basically answered critiques from the Neandertal side (Thieman, 2008).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"font-size: 1em;text-align: initial\">Loci that have been used in molecular phylogenetics:<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cytochrome_C\">Cytochrome C<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serum_albumin\">Serum albumin<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hemoglobin\">Hemoglobin <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">- Braunitizer, 1960s, Harding et al. 1997<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/D-loop\">Mitochondrial D-loop <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">- Wilson group, 1980, 1981, 1984, 1987, 1989, 1991(posthumously) -<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">TMRCA about 170 kya.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Y-chromosome\">Y-chromosome<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HLA-DR\">HLA-DR <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">- Ayala 1995 - TMRCA for locus is 60 million years.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD4\">CD4 <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(Intron) - Tishkoff, 1996 - most of the diversity is in Africa.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PDHA1\">PDHA1 <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(X-linked) Harris and Hey - TMRCA for locus greater than 1.5 million years.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Xlinked loci: PDHA1, Xq21.3, Xq13.3, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Zfx&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1\">Zfx, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Fix, Il2rg, Plp, Gk, Ids,<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Alas2, Rrm2p4, AmeIX, Tnfsf5, Licam, and Msn Autosomal:Numerous.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>In vitro fertilisation <\/strong>or<strong> IVF <\/strong>is a process of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fertilisation\">fertilisation <\/a>where an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ovum\">egg <\/a>is combined with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spermatozoon\">sperm <\/a>outside the body, The fertilised egg <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zygote\">(zygote) <\/a>is cultured for 2\u20136 days in a growth medium, an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embryo_culture\">embryo culture,<\/a> and is then transferred to the same or another woman's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uterus\">uterus, <\/a>with the intention of establishing a successful <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pregnancy\">pregnancy. <\/a>It may solve the problem of decaying population. IVF is a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Assisted_reproductive_technology\">assisted<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Assisted_reproductive_technology\">reproductive technology <\/a>used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infertility\">infertility <\/a>treatment and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gestational_surrogacy\">gestational surrogacy, <\/a>it give birth the concept of controversial fertility tourism and surrogacy.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Haploid loci in molecular anthropology - <\/strong>There are two continuous <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linkage_group\">linkage groups <\/a>in humans that are carried by a single sex. The first is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Y_chromosome\">Y chromosome, <\/a>which is passed from father to son. The other linkage group is the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). MtDNA can only be passed to the next generation by females but only under highly exceptional circumstances is mtDNA passed through males. More recently, the mtDNA genome has been used to estimate branching patterns in peoples around the world, such as when the new world was settled and how. The researchers have discovered that as humans moved from Africa's south-eastern regions, that more mutations accumulated in the coding region than expected, and in passage to the new world some groups are believed[to have passed from the Asian tropics to Siberia to an ancient land region called Beringia and quickly migrated to\u00a0<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">South America. Many of the mtDNA have far more mutations and at rarely mutated coding sites relative to expectations of neutral mutations (Wang, 2010).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">DNA hybridization <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">- A year later Brown and Wilson were looking at RFLP fragments and determined the human population expanded more recently than other ape populations.<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_anthropology#cite_note-pmid6273863-9\">[9] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In 1984 the first DNA sequence from an extinct animal was done. Sibley and Ahlquist apply DNA-DNA hybridization technology to anthropoid phylogeny, and see pan\/human split closer than gorilla\/pan or gorilla\/human split, a highly controversial claim.The technique they used was <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism\">restriction fragment length<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism\">polymorphism <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(RFLP), which was more affordable at the time compared to sequencing. In 1980, W.M. Brown, looking at the relative variation between human and other species, recognized there was a recent <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Population_constriction&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1\">constriction <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(180,000 years ago) in the human population.In 1987, PCR-amplification of mtDNA was first used to determine sequences.In 1991 Vigilante et al. published the work on mtDNA phylogeny implicating sub-saharan Africa as the place of humans most recent common ancestors for all mtDNAs.The war between out-of-Africa and multiregionalism, already simmering with the critiques of Allan Templeton, soon escalated with the paleoanthropologist, like Milford Wolpoff, getting involved. In 1995, F. Ayala published his critical Science article \"The Myth about Eve\", which relied on <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HLA-DR\">HLA-DR <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">sequence. In 1996, Parham and Ohta published their finds on the rapid evolution of HLA by short-distance recombination.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Genetic engineering <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is a kind of<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> genetic modification<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, is the direct manipulation of an organism's <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\">genome <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biotechnology\">biotechnology. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organisms\">organisms. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">New <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA\">DNA <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is obtained by either isolating or copying the genetic material of interest using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_cloning\">molecular cloning <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">methods or by <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_gene_synthesis\">artificially synthesizing <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">the DNA. An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a genetically modified organism (GMO). <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insulin\">Insulin<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">-producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982 and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetically_modified_food\">genetically modified food <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">has been sold since 1994. Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured in GM cells.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gene isolation and cloning - <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The next step is to isolate the candidate gene. The <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cell_(biology)\">cell <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">containing the gene is opened and the DNA is purified (Wilson, 1969). The gene is separated by using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restriction_enzymes\">restriction<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restriction_enzymes\">enzymes <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">to cut the DNA into fragmentsor <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymerase_chain_reaction\">Polymerase chain reaction <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(PCR) to amplify up the gene segment.<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_engineering#cite_note-48\">[48] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">These segments can then be extracted through <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gel_electrophoresis\">gel electrophoresis. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">If the chosen gene or the donor organism's <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\">genome <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">has been well studied it may already be accessible from a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_(biology)\">genetic library.<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> If the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_sequence\">DNA sequence <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is known, but no copies of the gene are available, it can also be <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene_synthesis\">artificially<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene_synthesis\">synthesized.<\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_engineering#cite_note-49\">[49] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Once isolated the gene is <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ligation_(molecular_biology)\">ligated <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">into a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plasmid\">plasmid <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that is then inserted into a bacteria. The plasmid is replicated when the bacteria divide, ensuring unlimited copies of the gene are available (GHerstein, 2007).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Inserting DNA into the host genome - There are a number of techniques available for inserting the gene into the host genome. This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heat_shock\">thermal <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extrachromosomal_DNA\">extrachromosomal DNA. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microinjection\">microinjection, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">where it can be injected through the cell's <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_envelope\">nuclear envelope <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">directly into the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cell_nucleus\">nucleus, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">or through the use of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Viral_vectors\">viral vectors.<\/a><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide range of plants, animals and micro organisms. Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Model_organism\">model animals <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that mimic human conditions and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene_therapy\">gene therapy. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">One of the earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria. This application has now been applied to, human growth hormones, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Follistim\">follistim <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(for treating infertility), <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Albumin_human\">human albumin, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monoclonal_antibodies\">monoclonal antibodies, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antihemophilic_factor\">antihemophilic<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antihemophilic_factor\">factors, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vaccine\">vaccines <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and many other drugs.[73][74] Mouse <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hybridoma_technology\">hybridomas, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">cells fused together to create <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monoclonal_antibodies\">monoclonal antibodies, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">have been humanised through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies (Cole et al, 2003).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">genetic screen<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> or <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">mutagenesis screen<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> is an experimental technique used to identify and select for individuals who possess a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phenotype\">phenotype <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">of interest in a mutagenized population.<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_screen#cite_note-Hartwell_2008-1\">[1] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Hence a genetic screen is a type of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phenotypic_screen\">phenotypic screen. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Genetic screens can provide important information on <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene\">gene <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">function as well as the molecular events that underlie a biological process or pathway. While <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome_project\">genome projects <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">have\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em;text-align: initial\">identified an extensive inventory of genes in many different organisms, genetic screens can provide valuable insight as to how those genes function.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/somatic-cell-nuclear-transfer\"><strong>somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">technique in which the nucleus of a somatic (body) cell is transferred to the cytoplasm of an enucleated egg (an egg that has had its own nucleus removed). Once inside the egg, the somatic nucleus is reprogrammed by egg cytoplasmic factors to become a zygote (fertilized egg) nucleus (Bernard, 1968). A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">primer<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> is a short strand of RNA or DNA (generally about 18-22 bases) that serves as a starting point\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">for <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_replication\">DNA synthesis. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">It is required for DNA replication because the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enzyme\">enzymes <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that catalyze this process, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_polymerase\">DNA polymerases, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">can only add new <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotides\">nucleotides <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">to an existing strand of DNA. The\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">polymerase starts replication at the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directionality_(molecular_biology)\">3'-end <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">of the primer, and copies the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA\">opposite strand <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(Ermak, 2013). In vivo <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_replication\">DNA replication <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">utilizes short strands of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RNA\">RNA <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">called RNA primers to initiate DNA synthesis on both the leading and lagging strands \u2014 DNA primers are not seen in vivo in humans.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">single-nucleotide polymorphism<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, often abbreviated to <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">SNP<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> is a variation in a single <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotide\">nucleotide <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that occurs at a specific position in the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\">genome, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">where each variation is present to some appreciable degree within a population. <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_association\">Association studies <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">can determine whether a genetic variant is associated with a disease or trait. Tag SNPs are useful in whole-genome SNP association studies in which hundreds of thousands of SNPs across the entire genome are genotyped.Haplotype mapping: sets of alleles or DNA sequences can be clustered so that a single SNP can identify many linked SNPs.Linkage <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linkage_Disequilibrium\">Disequilibrium <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(LD), a term used in population genetics, indicates non-random association of alleles at two or more loci, not necessarily on the same chromosome. It refers to the phenomenon that SNP allele or DNA sequence which are close together in the genome tend to be inherited together. A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">S<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">hort <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">T<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">andem <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">R<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">epeat <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(STR)<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> analysis is one of the most useful methods in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_biology\">molecular biology <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">which is used to compare specific <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Locus_(genetics)\">loci <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">on <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA\">DNA <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">from two or more samples. A <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Short_tandem_repeat\">short tandem repeat <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsatellite_(genetics)\">microsatellite, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">consisting of a unit of two to thirteen nucleotides repeated hundreds of times in a row on the DNA strand. STR analysis measures the exact number of repeating units. This method differs from <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism\">restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(RFLP) since STR analysis does not cut the DNA with restriction enzymes. Instead, probes are attached to desired regions on the DNA, and\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymerase_chain_reaction\">polymerase chain reaction <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(PCR) is employed to discover the lengths of the short tandem repeats (Gerstein, 2007).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Application in forensic science and forensic anthropology - STR analysis is a tool in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_genetics\">forensic<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_genetics\">analysis <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that evaluates specific STR regions found on <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_DNA\">nuclear DNA. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The variable (polymorphic) nature of the STR regions that are analyzed for forensic testing intensifies the discrimination between one DNA profile and another.<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/STR_analysis#cite_note-1\">[1] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Forensic science takes advantage of the population's variability in STR lengths, enabling scientists to distinguish one DNA sample from another. The system of DNA profiling used today is based on PCR and uses simple sequences<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/STR_analysis#cite_note-2\">[2] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">or short tandem repeats (STR). This method uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the most common is 4 bases repeated, but there are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases). Because unrelated people almost certainly have different numbers of repeat units, STRs can be used to discriminate between unrelated individuals. These STR <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Locus_(genetics)\">loci <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(locations on a chromosome) are targeted with sequence-specific primers and amplified using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PCR\">PCR. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The DNA fragments that result are then separated and detected using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrophoresis\">electrophoresis. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There are two common methods of separation and detection, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capillary_electrophoresis\">capillary<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capillary_electrophoresis\">electrophoresis <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(CE) and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gel_electrophoresis\">gel electrophoresis.<\/a><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">variable number tandem repeat<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (or <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">VNTR<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">) is a location in a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\">genome <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">where a short <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotide_sequence\">nucleotide<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotide_sequence\">sequence <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is organized as a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tandem_repeat\">tandem repeat. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">These can be found on many <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromosome\">chromosomes, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and often show <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymorphism_(biology)\">variations <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in length (number of repeats) among individuals. Each variant acts as an <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heredity\">inherited <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allele\">allele, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">allowing them to be used for personal or parental identification. Their analysis is useful in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetics\">genetics <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biology\">biology <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">research, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensics\">forensics, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_fingerprinting\">DNA fingerprinting.<\/a><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Application in forensic science and forensic anthropology - STR analysis is a tool in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_genetics\">forensic<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_genetics\">analysis <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that evaluates specific STR regions found on <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_DNA\">nuclear DNA. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The variable (polymorphic) nature of the STR regions that are analyzed for forensic testing intensifies the discrimination between one DNA profile and another. Forensic science takes advantage of the population's variability in STR lengths, enabling scientists to distinguish one DNA sample from another. The system of DNA profiling used today is based on PCR and uses simple sequences or short tandem repeats (STR). This method uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the most common is 4 bases repeated, but there are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases). Because unrelated people\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">almost certainly have different numbers of repeat units, STRs can be used to discriminate between unrelated individuals. These STR <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Locus_(genetics)\">loci <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(locations on a chromosome) are targeted with sequence-specific primers and amplified using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PCR\">PCR. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The DNA fragments that result are then separated and detected using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrophoresis\">electrophoresis. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There are two common methods of separation and detection, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capillary_electrophoresis\">capillary<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capillary_electrophoresis\">electrophoresis <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(CE) and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gel_electrophoresis\">gel electrophoresis.<\/a><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">variable number tandem repeat<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (or <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">VNTR<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">) is a location in a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\">genome <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">where a short <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotide_sequence\">nucleotide<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotide_sequence\">sequence <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is organized as a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tandem_repeat\">tandem repeat. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">These can be found on many <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromosome\">chromosomes, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and often show <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymorphism_(biology)\">variations <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in length (number of repeats) among individuals. Each variant acts as an <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heredity\">inherited <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allele\">allele, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">allowing them to be used for personal or parental identification. Their analysis is useful in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetics\">genetics <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biology\">biology <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">research, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensics\">forensics, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_fingerprinting\">DNA fingerprinting.<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Different applications may be mentioned -<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Recombinant human <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insulin\"><strong>insulin <\/strong><\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">- <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Almost completely replaced insulin obtained from animal sources (e.g. pigs and cattle) for the treatment of insulin-dependent <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diabetes\">diabetes. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A variety of different recombinant insulin preparations are in widespread use.Recombinant insulin is synthesized by inserting the human insulin gene into <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E._coli\"><em>E. coli<\/em>, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">or yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)which then produces insulin for human use.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Recombinant human <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Growth_hormone\"><strong>growth hormone <\/strong><\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(HGH, somatotropin) - <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Administered to patients whose pituitary glands generate insufficient quantities to support normal growth and development. Before recombinant HGH became available, HGH for therapeutic use was obtained from pituitary glands of cadavers.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Recombinant blood clotting <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Factor_VIII\"><strong>factor VIII <\/strong><\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">- <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A blood-clotting protein that is administered to patients with forms of the bleeding disorder hemophilia, who are unable to produce factor VIII in quantities sufficient to support normal blood coagulation. Before the development of recombinant factor VIII, the protein was obtained by processing large quantities of human blood from multiple donors.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Recombinant <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hepatitis_B_vaccine\"><strong>hepatitis B vaccine <\/strong><\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">- <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hepatitis_B\">Hepatitis B <\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">infection <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is controlled through the use of a recombinant hepatitis B vaccine, which contains a form of the hepatitis B virus surface antigen that is produced in yeast cells. The development of the recombinant subunit vaccine was an important and\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">necessary development because hepatitis B virus, unlike other common viruses such as <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polio_virus\">polio virus,<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> cannot be grown <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/In_vitro\">in vitro.<\/a><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Diagnosis of infection with <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIV\"><strong>HIV <\/strong><\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">- <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Each of the three widely used methods for <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIV_test\">diagnosing HIV<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIV_test\">infection <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">has been developed using recombinant DNA. The antibody test <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ELISA\">(ELISA <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">or <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Western_blot\">western blot) <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">uses a recombinant HIV protein to test for the presence of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antibodies\">antibodies <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that the body has produced in response to an HIV infection. The DNA test looks for the presence of HIV genetic material using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction\">reverse<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction\">transcription polymerase chain reaction <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(RT-PCR). Development of the RT-PCR test was made possible by the molecular cloning and sequence analysis of HIV genomes.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Different methodologies \u2013<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">southern blot <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is a method used in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_biology\">molecular biology <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">for detection of a specific <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_sequence\">DNA sequence <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in DNA samples.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">western<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">blot<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0is a widely used <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytical_technique\">analytical<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytical_technique\">technique <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">used in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_biology\">molecular<\/a>\u00a0<a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_biology\">biology, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immunogenetics\">immunogenetics <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and\u00a0 other molecular biology disciplines to detect specific <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proteins\">proteins <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in a\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">sample of tissue homogenate or extract.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Far-Eastern blotting <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is a technique used for analysis of lipids separated by high-performance <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thin_layer_chromatography\">thin<\/a>\u00a0<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">layer\u00a0<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thin_layer_chromatography\">chromatography <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HPTLC\">(HPTLC)<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. The lipids are transferred from the HPTLC plate to\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PVDF\">PVDF <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">membrane for further analysis, for example by enzymatic or ligand binding assays or mass\u00a0spectrometry.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"><strong>Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE),<\/strong> describes a technique widely used in biochemistry, forensics, genetics, molecular biology and biotechnology to separate biological macromolecules, usually proteins or nucleic acids, according to their electrophoretic mobility. Mobility is a function of the length, conformation and charge of the molecule.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Fast parallel proteolysis <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">FASTpp<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">) is a method to determine the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermostability\">thermostability <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protein\">proteins <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that does not need previous purification and labeling.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Quantitative dot blot <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">analysis is a method for quantifying specific DNA, RNA, or protein molecules using a dot blot apparatus.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\">Bioinformatics <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible. The field\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">may also be referred to as <\/span><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">computational biology<\/em><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, and can be defined as, \"conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_genomics\">functional genomics, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structural_genomics\">structural genomics, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proteomics\">proteomics, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. Now Bioinformatics plays a great role in anthropology also (Becquemout, 2009).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Molecular was is a great threat to us, this might be the black side of this technology. A number of militants are thinking about molecular war, but we should stop this to save and good survival of mankind.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Summary<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anthropology is the study of holistic aspect of man, and biological anthropology deals with the biological aspects of man as a whole. Biotechnology is the concept of development and modification of individual in genomic level for further development. Now Biotechnology are using largely in Anthropology, specially in Biological Anthropology. Different biotechnology are there blue, green, red white etc. Development of molecular anthropology give a new dimension of application of biotechnology in anthropology. DNA hybridization is one of the major way to modify the target genomic area or locus. Recombinant DNA technology plays a great role in implementation of the modification for the wellness as a important methodology. Different techniques are now using for this work i.e different blot techniques, western blot, southern blot etc, and quantitative dot blot technique. Only the great threat threat to us for using this very important technology in molecular war, this should be stopped for better mankind in survival.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>you can view video on Biotechnology and anthropology<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/FIurDvpiuU0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"36\" height=\"36\" \/><\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 References<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Arnold, John P. (2005). Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology. Cleveland, Ohio: BeerBooks. p. 34.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Becquemont L (June 2009). \"Pharmacogenomics of adverse drug reactions: practical applications and perspectives\". Pharmacogenomics. <strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">10<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (6): 961\u20139.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bernard Pierce (1968). The Role of Anthropology in Biotechnology: an Historical Resum\u00e9. Human Organization: Summer 1968, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 176-184.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Cole-Turner, Ronald (2003). <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.encyclopedia.com\/doc\/1G2-3404200058.html\">\"Biotechnology\". <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Encyclopedia of Science and Religion. Retrieved 7 December 2014.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Ermak G., (2013). Modern Science &amp; Future Medicine (second edition), 164 p., Gerstein, M. <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.primate.or.kr\/bioinformatics\/Course\/Yale\/intro.pdf\">Bioinformatics Introduction. <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yale_University\">Yale University. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Retrieved on May 8, 2007.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Kay Davies, Anthony Wynshaw-Boris, and Joel Hirschhorn. 1992. Hum. Mol. Gen. <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\">Oxford University<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\">Press <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(Great Britain).<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">King MC, Wilson AC (1975). <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/cgi\/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=1090005\"><em>\"Evolution at two levels in humans<\/em><\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/cgi\/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=1090005\"><em>andchimpanzees\"<\/em>. <\/a><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Science. <\/em><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">188<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (4184): 107\u201316.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Leakey LS (1970). <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC283268\"><em>The relationship of African apes, man and old world monkeys<\/em>. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Proc. Natl. Acad.\u00a0<\/span>Sci. U.S.A. <strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">67<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (2): 746\u20138.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Pinholster, Ginger (October 25, 2012). <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aaas.org\/news\/aaas-board-directors-legally-mandating-gm-food-labels-could-%E2%80%9Cmislead-and-falsely-alarm\">AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aaas.org\/news\/aaas-board-directors-legally-mandating-gm-food-labels-could-%E2%80%9Cmislead-and-falsely-alarm\">Could , Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved February 8, 2016.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Thieman, W.J.; Palladino, M.A. (2008). Introduction to Biotechnology. Pearson\/Benjamin Wang L (2010). <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3894835\">Pharmacogenomics: a systems approach. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med. <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">2<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (1):\u00a0<\/span>3\u201322.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Wilson AC, Sarich VM (1969). <\/em><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC223432\">\"A molecular time scale for human evolution\"<em>. <\/em><\/a><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.\u00a0<\/em><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">U.S.A. <strong>63<\/strong> (4): 1088\u2013 93.<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/FIurDvpiuU0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Contents:<\/strong><\/p>\n<div>\n<p>\u00a0 \u00a0 Anthropology in biological aspect<\/p>\n<p>Anthropology and biotechnology<\/p>\n<p>Different aspects of Biotechnology<\/p>\n<p>Application of Biotechnology in Anthropology<\/p>\n<p>Molecular anthropology and DNA hybridization<\/p>\n<p>Different methodologies of biotechnology used in Anthropology specially in man<\/p>\n<p>Summary<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Learning Objective:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>To focus on the application of Biotechnology in Anthropology and specially in Human being.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anthropology is the study of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human\">human <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in all aspect. <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Biological anthropology<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, is the specialized discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human. <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Biotechnology<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> is the tool of any living systems to develop for modify products or processes for specific use by using technological application that uses biological systems (Arnold, 2005).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Hungarian <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineer\">engineer <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K%C3%A1roly_Ereky\">Karoly Ereky <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">first coined the term Biotechnology in 1919 and later apart from\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">agriculture and medicine it has expanded to <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genomics\">genomics, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recombinant_gene\">recombinant gene <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">techniques, applied <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immunology\">immunology, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and development of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pharmaceutical\">pharmaceutical <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">therapies and food production (Leakey, 1970).<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The different terms has been developed in specific fields such as \u2013<\/p>\n<p><strong>a.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blue_biotechnology\"><strong>Blue biotechnology <\/strong><\/a>&#8211; is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications.<\/p>\n<p><strong>b.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Green_biotechnology\"><strong>Green biotechnology <\/strong><\/a>&#8211; is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes.<\/p>\n<p><strong>c.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biopharmaceutical\"><strong>Red biotechnology <\/strong><\/a>&#8211; is applied to medical processes.<\/p>\n<p>d.\u00a0 \u00a0<strong>White biotechnology <\/strong>&#8211; also known as industrial biotechnology, etc.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">e.\u00a0\u00a0 apart from this a new field emerged i.e<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pharmacogenomics\"><strong>Pharmacogenomics<\/strong> <\/a>&#8211; is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual&#8217;s response to drugs. Such technologydeveloped <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personalized_medicine\">personalized medicine <\/a>concept which is very important in population variation and ethnic specificity in anthropology.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Another important area is Molecular anthropology <\/strong>-in which <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular\">molecular <\/a>analysis is used to determine <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary\">evolutionary <\/a>links between ancient and modern human populations, as well as between contemporary species. Generally, comparisons are made between sequence, either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deoxyribonucleic_acid\">DNA <\/a>or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protein\">protein <\/a>sequence, however early studies used comparative <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serology\">serology <\/a>(Kay Devis, 1992). By examining <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_sequences\">DNA sequences <\/a>in different populations, scientists can determine the closeness of relationships between populations (or within populations). Certain similarities in genetic makeup let molecular anthropologists determine whether or not different groups of people belong to the same <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haplogroup\">haplogroup, <\/a>and thus if they share a common <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geographical\">geographical <\/a>origin.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">This is significant because it allows anthropologists to trace patterns of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_migration\">migration <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Town\">settlement,<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> which gives helpful insight as to how contemporary populations have formed and progressed over time.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Molecular anthropology has been extremely useful in establishing the evolutionary tree of humans and other <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Primates\">primates, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">including closely related species like chimps and gorillas.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">While there are clearly many <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morphology_(biology)\">morphological <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">similarities between humans and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chimpanzee\">chimpanzees. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Such information is useful in searching for common ancestors and coming to a better understanding of how humans evolved. Molecular anthropology has been extremely useful in establishing the evolutionary tree of humans and other <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Primates\">primates, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">including closely related species like chimps and gorillas (King, 1975).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There are two continuous <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linkage_group\">linkage groups <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in humans that are carried by a single sex. The first is the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Y_chromosome\">Y<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Y_chromosome\">chromosome, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">which is passed from father to son. The other linkage group is the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). MtDNA can only be passed to the next generation by females but only under highly exceptional circumstances is mtDNA passed through males (Pinholster, 2012).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The non-recombinant portion of the Y chromosome and the mtDNA, under normal circumstances, do not undergo productive recombination. Part of the Y chromosome can undergo recombination with the X chromosome and within ape history the boundary has changed. Such recombinant changes in the non-recombinant region of Y are extremely rare.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Since KringsNeandertalmtDNA have been sequenced, and the sequence similarity indicates an equally recent origin from a small population on the Neanderthal branch of late hominids. MCR1 gene has also been sequenced but the results are controversial.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Ancient DNA sequencing had been conducted on a limited scale up to the late 1990s when the staff at the Max Planck Institute shocked the anthropology world by sequencing DNA from an estimated 40,000-year-old <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neanderthal\">Neanderthal, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">which were derived from haplogroup H (CRS), Neandertals branched from humans more than 300,000 years before haplogroup H reached Europe. While the mtDNA and other studies continued to support a unique recent African origin, this new study basically answered critiques from the Neandertal side (Thieman, 2008).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"font-size: 1em;text-align: initial\">Loci that have been used in molecular phylogenetics:<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cytochrome_C\">Cytochrome C<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serum_albumin\">Serum albumin<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hemoglobin\">Hemoglobin <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">&#8211; Braunitizer, 1960s, Harding et al. 1997<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/D-loop\">Mitochondrial D-loop <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">&#8211; Wilson group, 1980, 1981, 1984, 1987, 1989, 1991(posthumously) &#8211;<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">TMRCA about 170 kya.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Y-chromosome\">Y-chromosome<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HLA-DR\">HLA-DR <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">&#8211; Ayala 1995 &#8211; TMRCA for locus is 60 million years.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD4\">CD4 <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(Intron) &#8211; Tishkoff, 1996 &#8211; most of the diversity is in Africa.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PDHA1\">PDHA1 <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(X-linked) Harris and Hey &#8211; TMRCA for locus greater than 1.5 million years.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Xlinked loci: PDHA1, Xq21.3, Xq13.3, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Zfx&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1\">Zfx, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Fix, Il2rg, Plp, Gk, Ids,<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Alas2, Rrm2p4, AmeIX, Tnfsf5, Licam, and Msn Autosomal:Numerous.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>In vitro fertilisation <\/strong>or<strong> IVF <\/strong>is a process of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fertilisation\">fertilisation <\/a>where an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ovum\">egg <\/a>is combined with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spermatozoon\">sperm <\/a>outside the body, The fertilised egg <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zygote\">(zygote) <\/a>is cultured for 2\u20136 days in a growth medium, an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embryo_culture\">embryo culture,<\/a> and is then transferred to the same or another woman&#8217;s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uterus\">uterus, <\/a>with the intention of establishing a successful <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pregnancy\">pregnancy. <\/a>It may solve the problem of decaying population. IVF is a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Assisted_reproductive_technology\">assisted<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Assisted_reproductive_technology\">reproductive technology <\/a>used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infertility\">infertility <\/a>treatment and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gestational_surrogacy\">gestational surrogacy, <\/a>it give birth the concept of controversial fertility tourism and surrogacy.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Haploid loci in molecular anthropology &#8211; <\/strong>There are two continuous <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linkage_group\">linkage groups <\/a>in humans that are carried by a single sex. The first is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Y_chromosome\">Y chromosome, <\/a>which is passed from father to son. The other linkage group is the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). MtDNA can only be passed to the next generation by females but only under highly exceptional circumstances is mtDNA passed through males. More recently, the mtDNA genome has been used to estimate branching patterns in peoples around the world, such as when the new world was settled and how. The researchers have discovered that as humans moved from Africa&#8217;s south-eastern regions, that more mutations accumulated in the coding region than expected, and in passage to the new world some groups are believed[to have passed from the Asian tropics to Siberia to an ancient land region called Beringia and quickly migrated to\u00a0<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">South America. Many of the mtDNA have far more mutations and at rarely mutated coding sites relative to expectations of neutral mutations (Wang, 2010).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">DNA hybridization <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">&#8211; A year later Brown and Wilson were looking at RFLP fragments and determined the human population expanded more recently than other ape populations.<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_anthropology#cite_note-pmid6273863-9\">[9] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In 1984 the first DNA sequence from an extinct animal was done. Sibley and Ahlquist apply DNA-DNA hybridization technology to anthropoid phylogeny, and see pan\/human split closer than gorilla\/pan or gorilla\/human split, a highly controversial claim.The technique they used was <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism\">restriction fragment length<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism\">polymorphism <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(RFLP), which was more affordable at the time compared to sequencing. In 1980, W.M. Brown, looking at the relative variation between human and other species, recognized there was a recent <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Population_constriction&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1\">constriction <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(180,000 years ago) in the human population.In 1987, PCR-amplification of mtDNA was first used to determine sequences.In 1991 Vigilante et al. published the work on mtDNA phylogeny implicating sub-saharan Africa as the place of humans most recent common ancestors for all mtDNAs.The war between out-of-Africa and multiregionalism, already simmering with the critiques of Allan Templeton, soon escalated with the paleoanthropologist, like Milford Wolpoff, getting involved. In 1995, F. Ayala published his critical Science article &#8220;The Myth about Eve&#8221;, which relied on <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HLA-DR\">HLA-DR <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">sequence. In 1996, Parham and Ohta published their finds on the rapid evolution of HLA by short-distance recombination.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Genetic engineering <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is a kind of<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> genetic modification<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, is the direct manipulation of an organism&#8217;s <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\">genome <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biotechnology\">biotechnology. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organisms\">organisms. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">New <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA\">DNA <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is obtained by either isolating or copying the genetic material of interest using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_cloning\">molecular cloning <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">methods or by <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_gene_synthesis\">artificially synthesizing <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">the DNA. An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a genetically modified organism (GMO). <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insulin\">Insulin<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">-producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982 and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetically_modified_food\">genetically modified food <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">has been sold since 1994. Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured in GM cells.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gene isolation and cloning &#8211; <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The next step is to isolate the candidate gene. The <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cell_(biology)\">cell <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">containing the gene is opened and the DNA is purified (Wilson, 1969). The gene is separated by using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restriction_enzymes\">restriction<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restriction_enzymes\">enzymes <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">to cut the DNA into fragmentsor <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymerase_chain_reaction\">Polymerase chain reaction <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(PCR) to amplify up the gene segment.<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_engineering#cite_note-48\">[48] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">These segments can then be extracted through <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gel_electrophoresis\">gel electrophoresis. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">If the chosen gene or the donor organism&#8217;s <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\">genome <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">has been well studied it may already be accessible from a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_(biology)\">genetic library.<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> If the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_sequence\">DNA sequence <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is known, but no copies of the gene are available, it can also be <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene_synthesis\">artificially<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene_synthesis\">synthesized.<\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_engineering#cite_note-49\">[49] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Once isolated the gene is <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ligation_(molecular_biology)\">ligated <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">into a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plasmid\">plasmid <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that is then inserted into a bacteria. The plasmid is replicated when the bacteria divide, ensuring unlimited copies of the gene are available (GHerstein, 2007).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Inserting DNA into the host genome &#8211; There are a number of techniques available for inserting the gene into the host genome. This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heat_shock\">thermal <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane&#8217;s permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extrachromosomal_DNA\">extrachromosomal DNA. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microinjection\">microinjection, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">where it can be injected through the cell&#8217;s <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_envelope\">nuclear envelope <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">directly into the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cell_nucleus\">nucleus, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">or through the use of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Viral_vectors\">viral vectors.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide range of plants, animals and micro organisms. Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Model_organism\">model animals <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that mimic human conditions and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene_therapy\">gene therapy. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">One of the earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria. This application has now been applied to, human growth hormones, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Follistim\">follistim <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(for treating infertility), <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Albumin_human\">human albumin, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monoclonal_antibodies\">monoclonal antibodies, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antihemophilic_factor\">antihemophilic<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antihemophilic_factor\">factors, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vaccine\">vaccines <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and many other drugs.[73][74] Mouse <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hybridoma_technology\">hybridomas, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">cells fused together to create <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monoclonal_antibodies\">monoclonal antibodies, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">have been humanised through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies (Cole et al, 2003).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">genetic screen<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> or <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">mutagenesis screen<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> is an experimental technique used to identify and select for individuals who possess a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phenotype\">phenotype <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">of interest in a mutagenized population.<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_screen#cite_note-Hartwell_2008-1\">[1] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Hence a genetic screen is a type of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phenotypic_screen\">phenotypic screen. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Genetic screens can provide important information on <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene\">gene <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">function as well as the molecular events that underlie a biological process or pathway. While <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome_project\">genome projects <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">have\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em;text-align: initial\">identified an extensive inventory of genes in many different organisms, genetic screens can provide valuable insight as to how those genes function.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/somatic-cell-nuclear-transfer\"><strong>somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">technique in which the nucleus of a somatic (body) cell is transferred to the cytoplasm of an enucleated egg (an egg that has had its own nucleus removed). Once inside the egg, the somatic nucleus is reprogrammed by egg cytoplasmic factors to become a zygote (fertilized egg) nucleus (Bernard, 1968). A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">primer<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> is a short strand of RNA or DNA (generally about 18-22 bases) that serves as a starting point\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">for <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_replication\">DNA synthesis. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">It is required for DNA replication because the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enzyme\">enzymes <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that catalyze this process, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_polymerase\">DNA polymerases, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">can only add new <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotides\">nucleotides <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">to an existing strand of DNA. The\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">polymerase starts replication at the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directionality_(molecular_biology)\">3&#8242;-end <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">of the primer, and copies the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA\">opposite strand <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(Ermak, 2013). In vivo <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_replication\">DNA replication <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">utilizes short strands of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RNA\">RNA <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">called RNA primers to initiate DNA synthesis on both the leading and lagging strands \u2014 DNA primers are not seen in vivo in humans.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">single-nucleotide polymorphism<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, often abbreviated to <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">SNP<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> is a variation in a single <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotide\">nucleotide <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that occurs at a specific position in the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\">genome, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">where each variation is present to some appreciable degree within a population. <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_association\">Association studies <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">can determine whether a genetic variant is associated with a disease or trait. Tag SNPs are useful in whole-genome SNP association studies in which hundreds of thousands of SNPs across the entire genome are genotyped.Haplotype mapping: sets of alleles or DNA sequences can be clustered so that a single SNP can identify many linked SNPs.Linkage <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linkage_Disequilibrium\">Disequilibrium <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(LD), a term used in population genetics, indicates non-random association of alleles at two or more loci, not necessarily on the same chromosome. It refers to the phenomenon that SNP allele or DNA sequence which are close together in the genome tend to be inherited together. A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">S<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">hort <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">T<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">andem <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">R<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">epeat <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(STR)<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> analysis is one of the most useful methods in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_biology\">molecular biology <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">which is used to compare specific <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Locus_(genetics)\">loci <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">on <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA\">DNA <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">from two or more samples. A <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Short_tandem_repeat\">short tandem repeat <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsatellite_(genetics)\">microsatellite, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">consisting of a unit of two to thirteen nucleotides repeated hundreds of times in a row on the DNA strand. STR analysis measures the exact number of repeating units. This method differs from <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism\">restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(RFLP) since STR analysis does not cut the DNA with restriction enzymes. Instead, probes are attached to desired regions on the DNA, and\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymerase_chain_reaction\">polymerase chain reaction <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(PCR) is employed to discover the lengths of the short tandem repeats (Gerstein, 2007).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Application in forensic science and forensic anthropology &#8211; STR analysis is a tool in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_genetics\">forensic<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_genetics\">analysis <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that evaluates specific STR regions found on <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_DNA\">nuclear DNA. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The variable (polymorphic) nature of the STR regions that are analyzed for forensic testing intensifies the discrimination between one DNA profile and another.<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/STR_analysis#cite_note-1\">[1] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Forensic science takes advantage of the population&#8217;s variability in STR lengths, enabling scientists to distinguish one DNA sample from another. The system of DNA profiling used today is based on PCR and uses simple sequences<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/STR_analysis#cite_note-2\">[2] <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">or short tandem repeats (STR). This method uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the most common is 4 bases repeated, but there are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases). Because unrelated people almost certainly have different numbers of repeat units, STRs can be used to discriminate between unrelated individuals. These STR <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Locus_(genetics)\">loci <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(locations on a chromosome) are targeted with sequence-specific primers and amplified using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PCR\">PCR. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The DNA fragments that result are then separated and detected using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrophoresis\">electrophoresis. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There are two common methods of separation and detection, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capillary_electrophoresis\">capillary<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capillary_electrophoresis\">electrophoresis <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(CE) and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gel_electrophoresis\">gel electrophoresis.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">variable number tandem repeat<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (or <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">VNTR<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">) is a location in a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\">genome <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">where a short <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotide_sequence\">nucleotide<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotide_sequence\">sequence <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is organized as a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tandem_repeat\">tandem repeat. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">These can be found on many <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromosome\">chromosomes, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and often show <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymorphism_(biology)\">variations <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in length (number of repeats) among individuals. Each variant acts as an <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heredity\">inherited <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allele\">allele, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">allowing them to be used for personal or parental identification. Their analysis is useful in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetics\">genetics <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biology\">biology <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">research, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensics\">forensics, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_fingerprinting\">DNA fingerprinting.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Application in forensic science and forensic anthropology &#8211; STR analysis is a tool in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_genetics\">forensic<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_genetics\">analysis <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that evaluates specific STR regions found on <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_DNA\">nuclear DNA. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The variable (polymorphic) nature of the STR regions that are analyzed for forensic testing intensifies the discrimination between one DNA profile and another. Forensic science takes advantage of the population&#8217;s variability in STR lengths, enabling scientists to distinguish one DNA sample from another. The system of DNA profiling used today is based on PCR and uses simple sequences or short tandem repeats (STR). This method uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the most common is 4 bases repeated, but there are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases). Because unrelated people\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">almost certainly have different numbers of repeat units, STRs can be used to discriminate between unrelated individuals. These STR <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Locus_(genetics)\">loci <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(locations on a chromosome) are targeted with sequence-specific primers and amplified using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PCR\">PCR. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The DNA fragments that result are then separated and detected using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrophoresis\">electrophoresis. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There are two common methods of separation and detection, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capillary_electrophoresis\">capillary<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capillary_electrophoresis\">electrophoresis <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(CE) and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gel_electrophoresis\">gel electrophoresis.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">variable number tandem repeat<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (or <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">VNTR<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">) is a location in a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\">genome <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">where a short <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotide_sequence\">nucleotide<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nucleotide_sequence\">sequence <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is organized as a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tandem_repeat\">tandem repeat. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">These can be found on many <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromosome\">chromosomes, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and often show <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymorphism_(biology)\">variations <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in length (number of repeats) among individuals. Each variant acts as an <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heredity\">inherited <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allele\">allele, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">allowing them to be used for personal or parental identification. Their analysis is useful in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetics\">genetics <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biology\">biology <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">research, <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensics\">forensics, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_fingerprinting\">DNA fingerprinting.<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Different applications may be mentioned &#8211;<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Recombinant human <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insulin\"><strong>insulin <\/strong><\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">&#8211; <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Almost completely replaced insulin obtained from animal sources (e.g. pigs and cattle) for the treatment of insulin-dependent <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diabetes\">diabetes. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A variety of different recombinant insulin preparations are in widespread use.Recombinant insulin is synthesized by inserting the human insulin gene into <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E._coli\"><em>E. coli<\/em>, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">or yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)which then produces insulin for human use.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Recombinant human <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Growth_hormone\"><strong>growth hormone <\/strong><\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(HGH, somatotropin) &#8211; <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Administered to patients whose pituitary glands generate insufficient quantities to support normal growth and development. Before recombinant HGH became available, HGH for therapeutic use was obtained from pituitary glands of cadavers.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Recombinant blood clotting <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Factor_VIII\"><strong>factor VIII <\/strong><\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">&#8211; <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A blood-clotting protein that is administered to patients with forms of the bleeding disorder hemophilia, who are unable to produce factor VIII in quantities sufficient to support normal blood coagulation. Before the development of recombinant factor VIII, the protein was obtained by processing large quantities of human blood from multiple donors.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Recombinant <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hepatitis_B_vaccine\"><strong>hepatitis B vaccine <\/strong><\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">&#8211; <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hepatitis_B\">Hepatitis B <\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">infection <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is controlled through the use of a recombinant hepatitis B vaccine, which contains a form of the hepatitis B virus surface antigen that is produced in yeast cells. The development of the recombinant subunit vaccine was an important and\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">necessary development because hepatitis B virus, unlike other common viruses such as <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polio_virus\">polio virus,<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> cannot be grown <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/In_vitro\">in vitro.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Diagnosis of infection with <\/strong><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIV\"><strong>HIV <\/strong><\/a><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">&#8211; <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Each of the three widely used methods for <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIV_test\">diagnosing HIV<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIV_test\">infection <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">has been developed using recombinant DNA. The antibody test <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ELISA\">(ELISA <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">or <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Western_blot\">western blot) <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">uses a recombinant HIV protein to test for the presence of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antibodies\">antibodies <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that the body has produced in response to an HIV infection. The DNA test looks for the presence of HIV genetic material using <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction\">reverse<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction\">transcription polymerase chain reaction <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(RT-PCR). Development of the RT-PCR test was made possible by the molecular cloning and sequence analysis of HIV genomes.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Different methodologies \u2013<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">southern blot <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is a method used in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_biology\">molecular biology <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">for detection of a specific <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_sequence\">DNA sequence <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in DNA samples.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">western<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">blot<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0is a widely used <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytical_technique\">analytical<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytical_technique\">technique <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">used in <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_biology\">molecular<\/a>\u00a0<a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_biology\">biology, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immunogenetics\">immunogenetics <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and\u00a0 other molecular biology disciplines to detect specific <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proteins\">proteins <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">in a\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">sample of tissue homogenate or extract.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Far-Eastern blotting <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is a technique used for analysis of lipids separated by high-performance <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thin_layer_chromatography\">thin<\/a>\u00a0<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">layer\u00a0<\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thin_layer_chromatography\">chromatography <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HPTLC\">(HPTLC)<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. The lipids are transferred from the HPTLC plate to\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">a <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PVDF\">PVDF <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">membrane for further analysis, for example by enzymatic or ligand binding assays or mass\u00a0spectrometry.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"><strong>Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE),<\/strong> describes a technique widely used in biochemistry, forensics, genetics, molecular biology and biotechnology to separate biological macromolecules, usually proteins or nucleic acids, according to their electrophoretic mobility. Mobility is a function of the length, conformation and charge of the molecule.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Fast parallel proteolysis <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">FASTpp<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">) is a method to determine the <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermostability\">thermostability <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">of <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protein\">proteins <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">that does not need previous purification and labeling.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Quantitative dot blot <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">analysis is a method for quantifying specific DNA, RNA, or protein molecules using a dot blot apparatus.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\">Bioinformatics <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible. The field\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">may also be referred to as <\/span><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">computational biology<\/em><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, and can be defined as, &#8220;conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_genomics\">functional genomics, <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structural_genomics\">structural genomics, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and <\/span><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proteomics\">proteomics, <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. Now Bioinformatics plays a great role in anthropology also (Becquemout, 2009).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Molecular was is a great threat to us, this might be the black side of this technology. A number of militants are thinking about molecular war, but we should stop this to save and good survival of mankind.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Summary<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anthropology is the study of holistic aspect of man, and biological anthropology deals with the biological aspects of man as a whole. Biotechnology is the concept of development and modification of individual in genomic level for further development. Now Biotechnology are using largely in Anthropology, specially in Biological Anthropology. Different biotechnology are there blue, green, red white etc. Development of molecular anthropology give a new dimension of application of biotechnology in anthropology. DNA hybridization is one of the major way to modify the target genomic area or locus. Recombinant DNA technology plays a great role in implementation of the modification for the wellness as a important methodology. Different techniques are now using for this work i.e different blot techniques, western blot, southern blot etc, and quantitative dot blot technique. Only the great threat threat to us for using this very important technology in molecular war, this should be stopped for better mankind in survival.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>you can view video on Biotechnology and anthropology<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/FIurDvpiuU0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"36\" height=\"36\" \/><\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 References<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Arnold, John P. (2005). Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology. Cleveland, Ohio: BeerBooks. p. 34.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Becquemont L (June 2009). &#8220;Pharmacogenomics of adverse drug reactions: practical applications and perspectives&#8221;. Pharmacogenomics. <strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">10<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (6): 961\u20139.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bernard Pierce (1968). The Role of Anthropology in Biotechnology: an Historical Resum\u00e9. Human Organization: Summer 1968, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 176-184.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Cole-Turner, Ronald (2003). <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.encyclopedia.com\/doc\/1G2-3404200058.html\">&#8220;Biotechnology&#8221;. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Encyclopedia of Science and Religion. Retrieved 7 December 2014.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Ermak G., (2013). Modern Science &amp; Future Medicine (second edition), 164 p., Gerstein, M. <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.primate.or.kr\/bioinformatics\/Course\/Yale\/intro.pdf\">Bioinformatics Introduction. <\/a><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yale_University\">Yale University. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Retrieved on May 8, 2007.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Kay Davies, Anthony Wynshaw-Boris, and Joel Hirschhorn. 1992. Hum. Mol. Gen. <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\">Oxford University<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\">Press <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(Great Britain).<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">King MC, Wilson AC (1975). <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/cgi\/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=1090005\"><em>&#8220;Evolution at two levels in humans<\/em><\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/cgi\/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=1090005\"><em>andchimpanzees&#8221;<\/em>. <\/a><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Science. <\/em><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">188<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (4184): 107\u201316.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Leakey LS (1970). <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC283268\"><em>The relationship of African apes, man and old world monkeys<\/em>. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Proc. Natl. Acad.\u00a0<\/span>Sci. U.S.A. <strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">67<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (2): 746\u20138.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Pinholster, Ginger (October 25, 2012). <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aaas.org\/news\/aaas-board-directors-legally-mandating-gm-food-labels-could-%E2%80%9Cmislead-and-falsely-alarm\">AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels<\/a> <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aaas.org\/news\/aaas-board-directors-legally-mandating-gm-food-labels-could-%E2%80%9Cmislead-and-falsely-alarm\">Could , Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved February 8, 2016.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Thieman, W.J.; Palladino, M.A. (2008). Introduction to Biotechnology. Pearson\/Benjamin Wang L (2010). <a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3894835\">Pharmacogenomics: a systems approach. <\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med. <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">2<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> (1):\u00a0<\/span>3\u201322.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Wilson AC, Sarich VM (1969). <\/em><a style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC223432\">&#8220;A molecular time scale for human evolution&#8221;<em>. <\/em><\/a><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.\u00a0<\/em><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">U.S.A. <strong>63<\/strong> (4): 1088\u2013 93.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["dr-diptendu-chatterjee"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[63],"license":[],"class_list":["post-70","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-dr-diptendu-chatterjee"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/70","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/70\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":77,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/70\/revisions\/77"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/70\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=70"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=70"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=70"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=70"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}